Diagnosis and monitoring treatment of prostate cancer

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are assays and methods related to determining a ratio of expression levels of PSA/PSMA or determining the expression level of PSMA in circulating tumor cells for diagnosis and/or for the purpose of monitoring treatment efficacy for prostate cancers that are likely hormone resistant.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a 35 U.S.C. §371 National Stage Application ofInternational Application No. PCT/US2013/048863 filed on Jul. 1, 2013,which designates the United States, and which claims benefit under 35U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/667,040 filed Jul.2, 2012, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

The present application was made with Government support under GrantNumber 5R01EB008047 awarded by National Institute of Biomedical Imagingand Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health. The Government of theUnited States has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The field of the invention relates to the diagnosis and treatment ofprostate cancer.

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed malignant cancer in malesin the United States and is the second leading cause of male cancermortality. Surgery and/or radiation therapies can be employed to treatprostate cancer and further to prevent progression of the disease.However, in some cases systemic therapy based on inhibiting the androgenreceptor (AR) is employed.

The androgen receptor is a steroid receptor transcription factor whichpromotes the growth and survival of both normal and cancerous prostatecells. Androgen ablation is used to block the activation or activity ofandrogens initially and often results in a favorable clinical response.However, prostate cancer can continue to progress and becomes resistantto androgen ablation, a disease status referred to as“castration-resistant prostate cancer.”

Clinical findings demonstrate that a majority of castration-resistantprostate cancers still express AR and androgen-dependent genes,indicating that the AR-signaling pathway is functional in the absence ofandrogens or in the presence of low levels of androgens (Chang, C. S. etal., Science 240, 324-6 (1988); Lubahn, D. B. et al., Mol Endocrinol 2,1265-75 (1988)). Several independent studies have also shown that AR isessential for both hormone sensitive and recurrent hormone refractoryprostate cancer (McPhaul, M. J. et al., J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 8,1-5 (2003); Heinlein, C. A. et al., Endocr Rev 25, 276-308 (2004)).Mutations and amplification of AR, alterations in protein kinases,growth factors and nuclear receptor coactivators have all been proposedto modulate AR signaling and may, therefore, play key roles in thedevelopment of androgen independence of prostate cancer (Feldman, B. etal., Nat Rev Cancer 1, 34-45 (2001); Lubahn, D. B. et al. Mol Endocrinol2, 1265-75 (1988); Kuiper, G. G. et al., J Mol Endocrinol 2, R1-4(1989)). Increased AR expression level has also been shown to associatewith the development of resistance to anti-androgen therapy (McPhaul, M.J. et al., J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 8, 1-5 (2003)).

SUMMARY

The methods and assays disclosed herein are based, in part, on thediscovery that an increase in the ratio of expression levels of prostatespecific antigen (PSA) to prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)measured in circulating tumor cells is predictive of the emergence ofhormone therapy-resistant or castration-resistant prostate cancer. Theratio of PSA/PSMA expression levels in circulating tumor cells can alsobe used to monitor treatment efficacy of an agent for treating prostatecancer, for example, a hormone therapy such as leuprolide. If thePSA/PSMA expression levels begin to rise during a course of suchtreatment, one can predict that the prostate cancer is no longerresponding to the present treatment strategy (e.g., an anti-hormonetherapy) and thus the treatment can be discontinued in favor of atreatment strategy with a different therapy, e.g., one that has not beenpreviously administered and/or targets another tumor growth pathway. Areduction in PSA/PSMA ratios in circulating tumor cells (CTCs) comparedto a reference standard can indicate that the androgen pathway is activeand/or not hormone independent, and the patient is more likely torespond to second line hormonal agents (e.g., abiratorone or others),whereas if the androgen pathway is inactive and/or hormone independentin CTCs (predicted by an increased ratio of PSA/PSMA), then the patientmay need chemotherapy or other types of non-hormonal therapies.Monitoring the PSA/PSMA ratio permits the ordinary skilled physician topredict changes in hormone dependency and to alter the treatment at anearlier time point than otherwise achievable, thereby selecting anefficacious treatment and permitting the treatment to be implementedearlier than if the physician were to monitor accepted clinical signsalone. For example, the methods and assays provided herein areparticularly effective for when a patient is not likely to continue torespond to leuprolide and other first-line hormonal therapies and itwill be necessary to select or monitor efficacy of a second-linehormonal therapy or a chemotherapeutic agent. Thus, provided herein areassays and methods for determining a ratio of expression levels ofprostate specific antigen (PSA) and PSMA in circulating tumor cells fordiagnosis and/or monitoring treatment efficacy for prostate cancers thatmay or may not respond to hormone therapies.

Also provided herein are assays and methods for detecting PSMAexpression levels, wherein a decrease in PSMA expression in CTC is anindicator of a progression of prostate cancer, e.g., towards prostatecancers that do not respond to hormone therapies. The level of PSMA inCTCs can also be serially monitored to determine whether an individualdetermined to have a hormone-resistant prostate cancer is responsive toa particular treatment.

One aspect described herein relates to an assay comprising (a)determining the ratio of expression levels of prostate specific antigen(PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) in circulating tumorcells isolated from a biological sample obtained from a subjectdetermined to have prostate cancer, (b) comparing the ratio ofexpression levels determined in step (a) to a reference value, and ifthe ratio is increased relative to the reference value identifying thesubject as being unlikely to respond to hormonal therapy, and if theratio is the same or reduced relative to the reference value identifyingthe subject as likely to respond to hormonal therapy.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the biological sample obtained from a subject comprises a blood sample.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the reference value is obtained from a subject or population ofsubjects with prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the reference value is obtained from the same subject at anearlier time point.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using a microfluidiccapture method.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the prostate cancer is metastatic prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject was previously being treated with a hormone therapyfor prostate cancer, or is currently being treated with a hormonetherapy for prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the hormone therapy for prostate cancer comprises leuprolide.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined bycontacting the isolated circulating tumor cells with antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the RNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at thesingle cell level using an in situ RNA hybridization assay. In anotherembodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein, theRNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at the single celllevel using a qRT-PCR assay.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined byimmunofluorescence staining and/or automated fluorescence microscopy.

Another aspect described herein relates to an assay comprising: (a)determining the ratio of expression levels of prostate specific antigen(PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) in circulating tumorcells isolated from a biological sample obtained from a subjectundergoing treatment for prostate cancer, (b) comparing the ratio ofexpression levels determined in step (a) to a reference value, whereinif the ratio determined in step (a) is reduced relative to the referencevalue, identifying the subject as responding to the treatment.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the reference value comprises a ratio of expression levels determined inthe subject or a population of subjects prior to initiation of thetreatment for prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the reference value comprises a ratio of expression levelsdetermined in a population of subjects determined to havecastration-resistant prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the biological sample obtained from a subject comprises a bloodsample.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the prostate cancer is metastatic prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the treatment for prostate cancer comprises leuprolide.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using a microfluidiccapture method.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined bycontacting the isolated circulating tumor cells with antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the RNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at thesingle cell level using an in situ RNA hybridization assay. In anotherembodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein, theRNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at the single celllevel using a qRT-PCR assay.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined byimmunofluorescence staining and/or automated fluorescence microscopy.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject is being treated with bicalutamide, MVD3100,abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T, ketoconazole, TAK-700, ora taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

Also provided herein, in another aspect, is an assay comprising: (a)isolating circulating tumor cells (CTCs) from a blood sample obtainedfrom a subject undergoing treatment for prostate cancer, (b) measuringthe level of expression of prostate specific antigen (PSA) and prostatespecific membrane antigen (PSMA) in isolated CTCs, (c) determining theratio of expression of PSA/PSMA, and (d) comparing the ratio ofexpression of PSA/PSMA to a reference value, wherein if the ratiodetermined in step (a) is reduced relative to the reference value,identifying the subject as responding to the treatment.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the reference value comprises a ratio of expression levels determined inthe subject or a population of subjects prior to initiation of thetreatment for prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the reference value comprises a ratio of expression levelsdetermined in a population of subjects determined to havecastration-resistant prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the biological sample obtained from a subject comprises a bloodsample.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using a microfluidiccapture method.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined bycontacting the isolated circulating tumor cells with antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the RNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at thesingle cell level using an in situ RNA hybridization assay. In anotherembodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein, theRNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at the single celllevel using a qRT-PCR assay.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined byimmunofluorescence staining and/or automated fluorescence microscopy.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject is being treated with bicalutamide, MVD3100,abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T, ketoconazole, TAK-700, ora taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

Another aspect described herein relates to a method of treating apatient determined to have prostate cancer, the method comprising:administering to a patient determined to have a ratio of prostatespecific antigen (PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA)expression in isolated circulating tumor cells that is increasedcompared to that of a reference value, a pharmaceutically effectiveamount of a prostate cancer agent that has not been previouslyadministered to the patient.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the prostate cancer agent that has not been previously administered isbicalutamide, MVD3100, abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T,ketoconazole, TAK-700, or a taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject is currently undergoing treatment with a hormonetherapy for prostate cancer, or was previously treated with a hormonetherapy for prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the hormone therapy comprises leuprolide.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the hormone therapy is discontinued prior to treatment with theanti-cancer agent.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the reference value is obtained from a subject or population ofsubjects having prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using a microfluidiccapture method.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated from a blood sampleobtained from the subject.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined bycontacting the isolated circulating tumor cells with antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the RNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at thesingle cell level using an in situ RNA hybridization assay. In anotherembodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein, theRNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at the single celllevel using a qRT-PCR assay.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined byimmunofluorescence staining and/or automated fluorescence microscopy.

Another aspect provided herein relates to a method of determining if asubject is responsive to a prostate cancer treatment comprising assayingisolated circulating tumor cells obtained from a subject being treatedfor prostate cancer to determine the ratio of prostate specific antigen(PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) and comparing theratio to a reference value, wherein if the ratio is reduced compared tothe reference value, identifying the individual as being responsive tothe prostate cancer treatment.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the reference value comprises a ratio of expression levels determined inthe subject or a population of subjects prior to initiation of thetreatment for prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the reference value comprises a ratio of expression levelsdetermined in a population determined to have castration-resistantprostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using a microfluidiccapture method.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated from a blood sampleobtained from the subject.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined bycontacting the isolated circulating tumor cells with antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined byimmunofluorescence staining and/or automated fluorescence microscopy.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the RNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at thesingle cell level using an in situ RNA hybridization assay. In anotherembodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein, theRNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at the single celllevel using a qRT-PCR assay.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject is being treated with bicalutamide, MVD3100,abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T, ketoconazole, TAK-700, ora taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject is being treated with a hormone therapy for prostatecancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the hormone therapy comprises leuprolide.

Also provided herein, in another aspect, are methods for determining ifan individual is responsive to a prostate cancer treatment comprising:(i) isolating circulating tumor cells obtained from a subject determinedto have prostate cancer at a first time point and assaying for the ratioof prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen(PSMA), (ii) administering a prostate cancer agent to the subject, and(iii) isolating circulating tumor cells obtained from a subjectdetermined to have prostate cancer at a second time point and assayingfor the ratio of prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostate specificmembrane antigen (PSMA), and (iv) comparing the ratio of PSA/PSMAmeasured at the second time point to the ratio of PSA/PSMA measured atthe first time point, wherein if the ratio at the second time point isdecreased compared to the ratio at the first time point, identifying theindividual as being responsive to the prostate cancer treatment.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the first time point is prior to initiation of the treatment forprostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the first time point is after discontinuation of a hormonetherapy.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using a microfluidiccapture method.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject is being treated with bicalutamide, MVD3100,abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T, ketoconazole, TAK-700, ora taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject is being treated with a hormone therapy for prostatecancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the hormone therapy comprises leuprolide.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated from a blood sampleobtained from the subject.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined bycontacting the isolated circulating tumor cells with antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined byimmunofluorescence staining and/or automated fluorescence microscopy.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the RNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at thesingle cell level using an in situ RNA hybridization assay. In anotherembodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein, theRNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at the single celllevel using a qRT-PCR assay.

Also provided herein in another aspect is a method of treating a patienthaving prostate cancer, the method comprising: (i) isolating circulatingtumor cells from a biological sample obtained from a subject, (ii)determining the ratio of prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostatespecific membrane antigen (PSMA) expression, (iii) if the PSA/PSMAexpression ratio is increased compared to that of a reference value,administering to the subject a prostate cancer agent that has not beenpreviously administered to the subject.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the prostate cancer agent that has not been previously administered isbicalutamide, MVD3100, abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T,ketoconazole, TAK-700, or a taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the subject having prostate cancer is currently undergoingtreatment with a hormone therapy for prostate cancer, or was previouslytreated with a hormone therapy for prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the hormone therapy comprises leuprolide.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the hormone therapy is discontinued prior to treatment with theprostate cancer agent that has not been previously administered.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the reference value is obtained from a subject or population ofsubjects having prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using a microfluidiccapture method.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the circulating tumor cells are isolated from a blood sampleobtained from the subject.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined bycontacting the isolated circulating tumor cells with antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined byimmunofluorescence staining and/or automated fluorescence microscopy.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the RNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at thesingle cell level using an in situ RNA hybridization assay. In anotherembodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein, theRNA expression levels of PSA and PSMA are determined at the single celllevel using a qRT-PCR assay.

Another aspect provided herein relates to a method of monitoring andguiding prostate cancer therapy in a subject being treated for prostatecancer, the method comprising: (a) determining the ratio of expressionlevels of prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostate specific membraneantigen (PSMA) in circulating tumor cells isolated from a biologicalsample obtained from a subject being treated with a prostate canceragent, (b) comparing the ratio of expression levels determined in step(a) to a reference value, and if the ratio is increased relative to thereference value, identifying the subject as being non-responsive to theprostate cancer agent.

In one embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects described herein,the hormone therapy comprises leuprolide.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, if the ratio is increased treatment with the prostate canceragent is discontinued and treatment with a prostate cancer agent thathas not been previously administered to the subject is initiated.

In another embodiment of this aspect and all other aspects describedherein, the prostate cancer agent that has not been previouslyadministered to the subject is bicalutamide, MVD3100, abirateroneacetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T, ketoconazole, TAK-700, or a taxanechemotherapeutic agent.

Also provided herein in another aspect is an assay comprising: (a)determining the expression level of prostate specific membrane antigen(PSMA) in circulating tumor cells isolated from a biological sampleobtained from a subject determined to have prostate cancer, (b)comparing the expression levels determined in step (a) to a referencevalue, and if the expression level is decreased relative to thereference value identifying the subject as having a castration-resistantprostate cancer.

In another aspect, provided herein is an assay comprising: (a)determining the expression level of prostate specific membrane antigen(PSMA) in circulating tumor cells isolated from a biological sampleobtained from a subject undergoing treatment for prostate cancer, (b)comparing the expression level determined in step (a) to a referencevalue, wherein if the level determined in step (a) is increased relativeto the reference value, identifying the subject as responding to thetreatment.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A-1C show data relating to multiparameter single cellimmunofluorescence assay for AR signaling to measure dynamic changes inAR activity in cultured prostate cancer cells. (FIG. 1A) Western blotfor PSA, PSMA, and alpha-tubulin in LNCaP cells treated with 1 nM R1881for increasing times after being cultured 3 days in medium containing10% charcoal-stripped serum (left panel), or treated with 10 μMbicalutamide for increasing times after being cultured under standardconditions (right panel). (FIG. 1B) Pseudocolor density plots ofmultiparameter immunofluorescence profiles of LNCaP cells treated with 1nM R1881 after 3 days culture in medium containing 10% charcoal-strippedserum, imaged using an automated fluorescence microscopy scanningsystem. x- and y-axes represent “area-pixel” single cell signalintensity measurements for PSMA and PSA, respectively. (FIG. 1C)Comparable analysis for LNCaP cells treated with 10 μM bicalutamideafter being cultured under standard conditions.

FIGS. 2A-2B show data relating to single cell measurements of ARsignaling that identify predominantly AR-on CTCs in castration-sensitiveprostate cancer versus heterogeneous signatures in castration-resistantprostate cancer. (FIG. 2A) Pseudocolor density plots of multiparameterimmunofluorescence profiles of CTCs from patient withcastration-sensitive prostate cancer (left panel) andcastration-resistant prostate cancer (right panel). X- and y-axesrepresent “area-pixel” single cell signal intensity measurements forPSMA and PSA, respectively. (FIG. 2B) Box plots demonstrating therelative proportions of AR signaling phenotypes in CTCs from patientswith CSPC compared to CRPC prior to initiation of therapy (P=0.015 for %PSA+/PSMA−; P=0.059 for % PSA+/PSMA+; P=0.13 for % PSA−/PSMA+).

FIGS. 3A-3B show data relating to ADT-induced AR signaling changes inCTCs from patients with castration-sensitive metastatic prostate cancer.(FIG. 3A) Pseudocolor density plots of multiparameter immunofluorescenceAR signaling profiles of CTCs in a patient with castration-sensitiveprostate cancer before and after ADT with leuprolide showingtransformation of CTCs from the “AR-on” (PSA+/PSMA−) phenotype to the“AR-off” (PSA−/PSMA+) phenotype. (FIG. 3B) Box plots showing compositedata for relative proportions of AR signaling phenotypes in CTCs frompatients with castration-sensitive prostate cancer (n=4) pretreatmentand after 4 weeks of ADT (P=0.028 for % PSA+/PSMA−; P=0.41 for %PSA+/PSMA+; P=0.64 for % PSA−/PSMA+).

FIGS. 4A-4D show data relating to AR signaling in CTCs from CRPCpatients treated with abiraterone acetate. (FIG. 4A) Pseudocolor densityplots of multiparameter immunofluorescence AR signaling profiles of CTCsin a patient with CRPC, showing a decrease in the proportion ofPSA+/PSMA− “AR-on” CTCs after initiation of abiraterone acetate. (FIG.4B) Box plots showing composite data for relative proportions of ARsignaling phenotypes in CTCs from patients that exhibit stable ordeclining proportion of “AR-on” CTCs after initiation of therapy (P=0.17for % PSA+ only; P=0.14 for % PSA+/PSMA+; P=0.055 for % PSMA+ only).(FIG. 4C) Increase in the proportion of PSA+/PSMA−“AR-on” CTCs observedin a patient with CRPC after treatment with abiraterone acetate. (FIG.4D) Box plots showing composite data for relative proportions of ARsignaling phenotypes in CTCs from patients that exhibit an increasingproportion of “AR-on” CTCs after initiation of therapy (P=0.38 for %PSA+ only; P=0.64 for % PSA+/PSMA+; P=1 for % PSMA+ only).

FIG. 5 shows data relating to AR transcriptional signature derivationand validation. Single molecule RNA sequencing and digital geneexpression (DGE) profiling reveals differentially expressed genes inLNCaP cells treated with R1881 or bicalutamide for 24 hours. Red dots onM-A plot represent individual transcripts up-regulated with R1881 orbicalutamide (FDR<0.05). The top 24 differentially expressed genes wereselected to comprise the AR transcriptional signature.

FIG. 6 shows data relating to a time course for VCaP prostate cancercells treated with R1881. Multiparameter single cell immunofluorescenceassay for AR signaling applied to VCaP prostate cancer cells aftertreatment with 1 nM R1881 after 3 days culture in medium containing 10%charcoal-stripped serum.

FIG. 7 shows enumeration of CTCs in metastatic prostate cancer patients(N=21) and male patients with no known diagnosis of cancer (N=21) usingHBCTC-chip 4-color imaging parameters. Captured cells were stained in 4colors with antibodies against PSA (Cy5), PSMA (Cy3), CD45 (FITC), andDAPI for DNA. Total CTC/mL refers to the sum of PSA+/PSMA−/CD45− CTCcount, PSA−/PSMA+/CD45− CTC count, and PSA+/PSMA+/CD45− CTC count,divided by the total volume of blood processed. Dashed line refers tothe signal intensity threshold for detection (4 CTC/mL), previouslydetermined by analysis of healthy donor blood samples, below which asignal is considered a false positive.

FIGS. 8A-8B are block diagrams depicting an exemplary system for usewith the assays and methods described herein (FIG. 8A) and exemplaryinstructions encoded on a computer readable storage medium for use withthe systems described herein (FIG. 8B).

FIGS. 9A-9C demonstrate the heterogeneity of RNA expression between CTCsisolated from a prostate cancer patient FIG. 9A depicts images ofmicromanipulation of single CTCs isolated from a blood specimen of apatient with prostate cancer using the ^(neg)CTC-iChip and stained insolution with anti-EpCAM and anti-CD45 antibodies. Top panel shows abright field image merged. Wide arrow represents an EpCAM+/CD45− CTC.Thin arrows points to EpCAM−/CD45+ leukocytes. Arrowhead denotes anerythrocyte. Dashed line outlines the micromanipulator needle tip.Bottom two panels show single channels. Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 9Bdepicts EpCAM and bright field images of 15 single prostate cancer CTCsfrom a single patient selected for transcriptional profiling. Scale bar,10 μm. FIG. 9C depicts a table listing the proportional distribution ofvarious gene groups expressed in single CTCs isolated from the prostatecancer patient.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The methods and assays provided herein are based, in part, on thediscovery that ratios of prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostatespecific membrane antigen (PSMA) expression in circulating tumor cellscan aid in determining the likelihood that a prostate cancer will orwill not respond to a hormonal therapy, and further can be used tomonitor therapeutic efficacy of an anti-cancer agent used for thetreatment of prostate cancer. Also provided herein are assays andmethods related to determining a ratio of expression levels of PSMA incirculating tumor cells for diagnosis and/or monitoring treatmentefficacy for prostate cancers that are likely hormone resistant.

Definitions

As used herein, the term “circulating tumor cells” refers to cells thathave detached from a primary tumor (e.g., a prostate tumor) andcirculate in the bloodstream of a subject having cancer.

As used herein, the term “prostate cancer” refers to a malignantneoplasm of the prostate within a given subject. In one embodiment, theneoplasm is of epithelial origin and is also referred to as a carcinomaof the prostate. For the purposes of the present disclosure, the term“prostate cancer” typically refers to castration-sensitive cancer (e.g.,prostate cancer that is responsive to a hormone therapy, as that term isused herein). In one embodiment, the term “prostate cancer” refers to ametastatic prostate cancer. Alternatively, in another embodiment theterm “prostate cancer” refers to a localized prostate cancer.

As used herein the term “castration-resistant prostate cancer” refers toa refractory prostate cancer that continues or resumes growth insubjects previously treated or currently undergoing hormone therapytreatment for prostate cancer. Typically, “castration-resistant prostatecancers” are also metastatic prostate cancers. Whilecastration-resistant prostate cancers are no longer responsive tocastration treatment (reduction of available androgen/testosterone/DHTby chemical or surgical means), these cancers still show reliance uponhormones for androgen receptor activation. That is, castration-resistantprostate cancers do not respond to hormonal therapies that interfereindirectly with gonadal production of testosterone in the subject (e.g.,first-line therapies such as leuprolide, which produces hypogonadism),however they can still respond to anti-androgen therapies that e.g.,inhibit specific enzymes in the production of testosterone or downstreamactivity of the AR itself. For example, some castrate-resistant prostatecancers will respond to abiraterone acetate inhibition of CYP17A1 enzymeinhibition (a second-line hormonal therapy), which reduces production ofDHEA and androstenedione (precursors of testosterone). This is incontrast to hormone-therapy resistant prostate cancers that do notrespond to any hormonal therapy and are therefore treated using achemotherapeutic agent that is independent of the AR signaling pathway.

As used herein, the term “hormone therapy” refers to a therapy for thetreatment of prostate cancer that deprives a tumor of androgen (e.g.,testosterone) or androgen activity in the subject. Such hormonetherapies can include e.g., agents that prevent testosterone production,agents that block testosterone action at the level of the cell, orsurgical removal of the testes (orchiectomy). In one embodiment, thehormone therapy comprises a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)agonist, such as leuprolide (LUPRON™, ELIGARD™), buserelin (SUPREFACT™,SUPRECOR™), goserelin (ZOLADEX™), nafarelin (SYNAREL™), triptorelin(TRELSTAR™), histrelin (SUPPRELIN A™; VANTAS™), deslorelin (SUPRELORIN™;OVUPLANT™), or degarelix (FIRMAGON™). Leuprolide is a common first-lineanti-androgen. In another embodiment, the hormone therapy comprises asecond-line anti-androgen, such as bicalutamide (CASODEX™; COSUDEX™,CALUTIDE™, KALUMID™), flutamide, or nilutamide (NILANDRON™), amongothers. In another embodiment, the hormonal therapy comprisesabiraterone acetate.

As used herein, an “antibody reagent” encompasses polyclonal andmonoclonal antibody preparations, as well as preparations includinghybrid or chimeric antibodies, such as humanized antibodies, alteredantibodies, F(ab′)₂ fragments, F(ab) fragments, Fv fragments, singledomain antibodies, dimeric and trimeric antibody fragment constructs,minibodies, and functional fragments thereof which exhibit immunologicalbinding properties of the parent antibody molecule and/or which bind acell surface antigen.

As used herein, the term “biological sample” refers to a fluid sample, acell sample, a tissue sample, or an organ sample obtained from a subjector patient. For the purposes of isolating circulating tumor cells, thebiological sample is typically a whole blood sample, but can also be apartially separated (e.g., centrifuged) blood sample provided that thebiological sample comprises at least one circulating tumor cell, as thatterm is used herein. In some embodiments, while not necessary, a cell orpopulation of cells, an exosome, a quantity of tissue or fluid areobtained from a subject to first detect the presence of prostate cancerprior to isolation of circulating tumor cells. The term “sample”includes any material derived by processing such a sample. Derivedsamples can, for example, include nucleic acids or proteins extractedfrom the sample or obtained by subjecting the sample to techniques suchas amplification or reverse transcription of mRNA, isolation and/orpurification of certain components, etc.

As used herein, the term “reference value” refers to a reference value,or range of values, obtained for PSMA expression or a ratio of PSA/PSMAexpression from e.g., at least one subject. In some embodiments, thereference value is obtained from the same subject prior to treatmentwith an anti-cancer agent for the treatment of prostate cancer or from apopulation of subjects prior to initiation of such treatment.Alternatively, the reference value or range of values can be obtainedfrom a plurality of subjects in a population substantially free ofcastration-resistant prostate cancer (e.g., a subject determined to haveprostate cancer, wherein the prostate cancer is still responsive tohormonal therapies) or alternatively from a plurality of subjects in apopulation having castration-resistant or hormonal therapy-resistantprostate cancer. The reference sample can be stored as a value(s) on acomputer or PDA device to permit comparison with a value obtained from asubject using the methods described herein. The reference sample canalso be obtained from the same subject e.g., at an earlier time pointprior to onset of castration resistant prostate cancer or prior toinitiation of treatment with an agent for treating prostate cancer usingclinical tests known to those of skill in the art. One of skill in theart can determine an appropriate reference sample for use with themethods described herein.

The term “statistically significant” or “significantly” refers tostatistical significance and generally means a two standard deviation(2SD) above normal, or higher, e.g., level of PSA/PSMA expression. Theterm refers to statistical evidence that there is a difference. It isdefined as the probability of making a decision to reject the nullhypothesis when the null hypothesis is actually true. The decision isoften made using the p-value.

As used herein, the term “serially monitoring” when referring to a levelof PSA/PSMA in a sample, refers to measuring a ratio of PSA/PSMAexpression in a sample of CTCs obtained from a subject on two or moreoccasions (e.g., doctor's visits). Serial monitoring can be performed onsamples obtained from subjects on a quarterly, bimonthly, monthly,biweekly, weekly, every 3 days or on a daily basis. Serial monitoring ofa level of PSA/PSMA includes periodically measuring such a ratio atregular intervals as deemed necessary by the skilled artisan.

As used herein, the terms “chemotherapy,” “anti-cancer agent,” or“chemotherapeutic agent” refer to any chemical agent with therapeuticusefulness in the treatment of diseases characterized by abnormal cellgrowth, and particularly cell growth associated with prostate cancer.Such diseases include tumors, neoplasms and cancer as well as diseasescharacterized by hyperplastic growth. An anti-cancer agent orchemotherapeutic agent differs from a hormonal therapy, as the term isused herein, in that an anti-cancer or chemotherapeutic agent does notdirectly target AR pathways. Typically, in the context of the presentdisclosure, such chemotherapy agents are considered to be second- orthird-line therapies that are applied following failure of a subject toadequately respond to first-line hormonal therapies for treatment ofprostate cancer, or more frequently following the emergence of ahormone-resistant phenotype in an individual in which hormonal therapywas initially effective in reducing tumor load. Chemotherapeutic agentsas used herein encompass both chemical and biological agents. Theseagents function to inhibit a cellular activity upon which the cancercell depends for continued survival. Categories of chemotherapeuticagents include alkylating/alkaloid agents, antimetabolites, andmiscellaneous antineoplastic drugs. Most if not all of these agents aredirectly toxic to cancer cells and do not require immune stimulation. Inone embodiment, a chemotherapeutic agent is a radioactive molecule. Oneof skill in the art can readily identify a chemotherapeutic agent of use(e.g. see Slapak and Kufe, Principles of Cancer Therapy, Chapter 86 inHarrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 14th edition; Perry et al.,Chemotherapy, Ch. 17 in Abeloff, Clinical Oncology 2nd ed., ©2000Churchill Livingstone, Inc; Baltzer L, Berkery R (eds): Oncology PocketGuide to Chemotherapy, 2nd ed. St. Louis, Mosby-Year Book, 1995; FischerD S, Knobf M F, Durivage H J (eds): The Cancer Chemotherapy Handbook,4th ed. St. Louis, Mosby-Year Book, 1993). In one embodiment, thechemotherapeutic agent comprises a taxane chemotherapeutic agent. Forexample, in one embodiment, the chemotherapeutic agent is docetaxol.

As used herein, the terms “treat,” “treatment,” “treating,” or“amelioration” refer to therapeutic treatments, wherein the object is toreverse, alleviate, ameliorate, inhibit, slow down or stop theprogression or severity of a condition associated with, a disease ordisorder. The term “treating” includes reducing or alleviating at leastone adverse effect or symptom of a condition, disease or disorderassociated with a malignant condition or cancer. Treatment is generally“effective” if one or more symptoms or clinical markers are reduced.Alternatively, treatment is “effective” if the progression of a diseaseis reduced or halted. That is, “treatment” includes not just theimprovement of symptoms or markers, but can also include a cessation orat least slowing of progress or worsening of symptoms that would beexpected in absence of treatment. Beneficial or desired clinical resultsinclude, but are not limited to, alleviation of one or more symptom(s)of a malignant disease, diminishment of extent of a malignant disease,stabilized (i.e., not worsening) state of a malignant disease, delay orslowing of progression of a malignant disease, amelioration orpalliation of the malignant disease state, and remission (whetherpartial or total), whether detectable or undetectable. The term“treatment” of a disease also includes providing relief from thesymptoms or side-effects of the disease (including palliativetreatment).

As used herein, the term “therapeutically effective amount” means thatamount necessary, at least partly, to attain the desired effect, or todelay the onset of, inhibit the progression of, or halt altogether, theonset or progression of the particular disease or disorder being treated(e.g., castration-resistant prostate cancer). Such amounts will depend,of course, on the particular condition being treated, the severity ofthe condition and individual patient parameters including age, physicalcondition, size, weight and concurrent treatment. These factors are wellknown to those of ordinary skill in the art and can be addressed with nomore than routine experimentation. In some embodiments, a maximum doseof the anti-cancer agent is used, that is, the highest safe doseaccording to sound medical judgment. It will be understood by those ofordinary skill in the art, however, that a lower dose or tolerable dosecan be administered for medical reasons, psychological reasons or forvirtually any other reason.

The terms “decrease”, “reduced”, “reduction”, “decrease” or “inhibit”are all used herein generally to mean a decrease by a statisticallysignificant amount. However, for avoidance of doubt, “reduced”,“reduction” or “decrease” or “inhibit” means a decrease by at least 10%as compared to a reference value or reference level, for example adecrease by at least about 20%, or at least about 30%, or at least about40%, or at least about 50%, or at least about 60%, or at least about70%, or at least about 80%, or at least about 90% or up to and includinga 100% decrease (e.g. absent level or non-detectable level as comparedto a reference sample), or any decrease between 10-100% as compared to areference level.

The terms “increased”, “increase” or “enhance” or “activate” are allused herein to generally mean an increase by a statistically significantamount; for the avoidance of any doubt, the terms “increased”,“increase” or “enhance” or “activate” means an increase of at least 10%as compared to a reference level, for example an increase of at leastabout 20%, or at least about 30%, or at least about 40%, or at leastabout 50%, or at least about 60%, or at least about 70%, or at leastabout 80%, or at least about 90% or up to and including a 100% increaseor any increase between 10-100% as compared to a reference level, or atleast about a 2-fold, or at least about a 3-fold, or at least about a4-fold, or at least about a 5-fold or at least about a 10-fold increase,at least about a 20-fold increase, at least about a 50-fold increase, atleast about a 100-fold increase, at least about a 1000-fold increase ormore as compared to a reference level.

As used herein the term “comprising” or “comprises” is used in referenceto compositions, methods, and respective component(s) thereof, that areessential to the claimed invention, yet open to the inclusion ofunspecified elements, whether essential or not.

As used herein the term “consisting essentially of” refers to thoseelements required for a given embodiment. The term permits the presenceof elements that do not materially affect the basic and novel orfunctional characteristic(s) of that embodiment of the claimedinvention.

The term “consisting of” refers to compositions, methods, and respectivecomponents thereof as described herein, which are exclusive of anyelement not recited in that description of the embodiment.

As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singularforms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless the contextclearly dictates otherwise. Thus for example, references to “the method”includes one or more methods, and/or steps of the type described hereinand/or which will become apparent to those persons skilled in the artupon reading this disclosure and so forth.

Isolation of Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs)

Epithelial cells that are released from solid tumors have been found invery low concentrations in the circulation of patients with advancedcancers of the breast, colon, liver, ovary, prostate, and lung. Thepresence or relative number of these cells in blood has been correlatedwith overall prognosis and responsiveness of a subject to therapy. TheseCTCs can aid in the detection of tumor expansion or metastasis beforethe appearance of clinical symptoms.

CTCs typically have a short half-life (e.g., approximately one day) andtheir presence generally indicates a recent influx from a proliferatingtumor. Therefore, CTCs are part of a dynamic process that can reflectthe current clinical status of patient disease and therapeutic response.

CTCs can be isolated from a biological sample, such as a whole bloodsample, using any method known to those of skill in the art, providedthat the method of isolation will not interfere with determining theexpression of PSA or PSMA in the circulating tumor cells. For example,one would not use an antibody against either PSA or PSMA to capture apopulation of circulating tumor cells from a biological sample, as suchmethods of CTC capture would interfere with measuring expression ofeither PSA or PSMA or a ratio thereof.

In one embodiment, the circulating tumor cells are isolated using amicrofluidic capture method, such as the method described by Stott etal. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA (2010) 107:18392-7, which is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety.

Antibody Reagents for Measuring PSA and/or PSMA Levels

As used herein, the term “antibody reagent” refers to a protein thatincludes at least one immunoglobulin variable domain or immunoglobulinvariable domain sequence and which specifically binds a given antigen.For example, an antibody can include a heavy (H) chain variable region(abbreviated herein as VH), and a light (L) chain variable region(abbreviated herein as VL). In another example, an antibody includes twoheavy (H) chain variable regions and two light (L) chain variableregions. The term “antibody reagent” encompasses antigen-bindingfragments of antibodies (e.g., single chain antibodies, Fab and sFabfragments, F(ab′)₂, Fd fragments, Fv fragments, scFv, and domainantibodies (dAb) fragments (de Wildt et al., Eur J. Immunol. 1996;26(3):629-39)) as well as complete antibodies. An antibody can have thestructural features of IgA, IgG, IgE, IgD, IgM (as well as subtypesthereof). Antibodies can be from any source, including primate (humanand non-human primate) and primatized antibodies.

The VH and VL regions can be further subdivided into regions ofhypervariability, termed “complementarity determining regions” (“CDR”),interspersed with regions that are more conserved, termed “frameworkregions” (“FR”). The extent of the framework region and CDRs has beenprecisely defined (see, Kabat, E. A., et al. (1991) Sequences ofProteins of Immunological Interest, Fifth Edition, U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, NIH Publication No. 91-3242, and Chothia, C.et al. (1987) J. Mol. Biol. 196:901-917; Kabat definitions are usedherein). Each VH and VL is typically composed of three CDRs and fourFRs, arranged from amino-terminus to carboxy-terminus in the followingorder: FR1, CDR1, FR2, CDR2, FR3, CDR3, FR4.

One or more regions of an antibody can be human or effectively human.For example, one or more of the variable regions can be human oreffectively human. For example, one or more of the CDRs can be human,e.g., HC CDR1, HC CDR2, HC CDR3, LC CDR1, LC CDR2, and LC CDR3. One ormore of the framework regions can be human, e.g., FR1, FR2, FR3, and FR4of the HC or LC. For example, at least 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93,94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% of an immunoglobulin variable domain,the constant region, the constant domains (CH1, CH2, CH3, CL1), or theentire antibody can be human or effectively human. Fully humanmonoclonal antibodies also can be prepared by immunizing mice transgenicfor large portions of human immunoglobulin heavy and light chain loci.Following immunization of these mice (e.g., XENOMOUSE™ (Abgenix),HUMAB-MOUSE™ (Medarex/GenPharm)), monoclonal antibodies can be preparedaccording to standard hybridoma technology. These monoclonal antibodieswill have human immunoglobulin amino acid sequences and therefore willnot provoke human anti-mouse antibody (HAMA) responses when administeredto humans.

The term “antigen-binding fragment” is used herein to refer to one ormore fragments of a full length antibody that retain the ability tospecifically bind to a target of interest. Examples of binding fragmentsencompassed within the term “antigen-binding fragment” of a full lengthantibody include (i) a Fab fragment, a monovalent fragment consisting ofthe VL, VH, CL and CH1 domains; (ii) a F(ab′)₂ fragment, a bivalentfragment including two Fab fragments linked by a disulfide bridge at thehinge region; (iii) an Fd fragment consisting of the VH and CH1 domains;(iv) an Fv fragment consisting of the VL and VH domains of a single armof an antibody, (v) a dAb fragment (Ward et al., (1989) Nature341:544-546), which consists of a VH or VL domain; and (vi) an isolatedcomplementarity determining region (CDR) that retains specificantigen-binding functionality. Furthermore, although the two domains ofthe Fv fragment, VL and VH, are coded for by separate genes, they can bejoined, using recombinant methods, by a synthetic linker that enablesthem to be made as a single protein chain in which the VL and VH regionspair to form monovalent molecules known as single chain Fv (scFv). Seee.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,260,203, 4,946,778, and 4,881,175; Bird et al.(1988) Science 242:423-426; and Huston et al. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA 85:5879-5883.

Antibody fragments can be obtained using any appropriate techniqueincluding conventional techniques known to those of skill in the art.The term “monospecific antibody” refers to an antibody that displays asingle binding specificity and affinity for a particular target, e.g.,epitope. This term includes a “monoclonal antibody” or “monoclonalantibody composition,” which as used herein refer to a preparation ofantibodies or fragments thereof of single molecular composition,irrespective of how the antibody was generated.

Antibody reagents to be used for protein analysis are widely availablethrough commercial sources including AbCam (Cambridge, Mass.), NewEngland Biolabs (Ipswich, Mass.), Santa Cruz Biotechnologies (SantaCruz, Calif.), and Cell Signaling (Danvers, Mass.), among others.

Antibodies and antibody reagents can also be raised against apolypeptide or portion of a polypeptide by methods known to thoseskilled in the art. Antibodies are readily raised in animals such asrabbits or mice by immunization with the gene product, or a fragmentthereof (e.g., PSA or PSMA). Immunized mice are particularly useful forproviding sources of B cells for the manufacture of hybridomas, which inturn are cultured to produce large quantities of monoclonal antibodies.While both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies can be used in themethods described herein, it is preferred that a monoclonal antibody isused where conditions require increased specificity for a particularprotein.

Phage display can also be particularly effective in identifying antibodyreagents useful for the methods and assays described herein. Briefly,one prepares a phage library (using e.g., m13, fd, or lambda phage),displaying inserts from 4 to about 80 amino acid residues usingconventional procedures. The inserts can represent, for example, acompletely degenerate or biased array. One can then select phage-bearinginserts which bind to PSA or PSMA molecules. This process can berepeated through several cycles of reselection of phage that bind to thePSA or PSMA molecules. Repeated rounds lead to enrichment of phagebearing particular sequences. DNA sequence analysis can be conducted toidentify the sequences of the expressed polypeptides. The minimal linearportion of the sequence that binds to the PSA or PSMA molecules can bedetermined. One can repeat the procedure using a biased librarycontaining inserts containing part, or all, of the minimal linearportion plus one or more additional degenerate residues upstream ordownstream thereof. Yeast two-hybrid screening methods also may be usedto identify polypeptides that bind to the PSA or PSMA molecules. Thus,PSA or PSMA molecules can be used to screen peptide libraries, includingphage display libraries, to identify and select peptide binding partnersof the PSA or PSMA molecules.

As detailed herein, the foregoing antibody reagents can be used todetect PSA and/or PSMA expression in circulating tumor cells. Theantibodies can be coupled to specific diagnostic labeling agents forimaging of the protein or fragment thereof. Labels include, for example,fluorescent or chromogenic labels, as well as antibody fusion proteins,such as antibody-GFP fusions or antibody fusions to other fluorescentproteins known in the art (e.g., enhanced green fluorescent protein(EGFP), Renilla reniformis green fluorescent protein, GFPmut2, GFPuv4,enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP), enhanced cyan fluorescentprotein (ECFP), enhanced blue fluorescent protein (EBFP), citrine andred fluorescent protein from discosoma (dsRED)). A wide variety offluorescent labels are available from and/or extensively described inthe Handbook of Fluorescent Probes and Research Products 8.sup.th Ed.(2001), available from Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg., as well as manyother manufacturers.

In other embodiments, the antibody reagent is fused to a molecule thatis readily detectable either by its presence or activity including, butnot limited to, luciferase, chloramphenicol acetyl transferase,β-galactosidase, secreted placental alkaline phosphatase, β-lactamase,human growth hormone, and other secreted enzyme reporters.

PSA and/or PSMA protein from a biological sample comprising at least onecirculating tumor cell to be analyzed can be detected or isolated usingtechniques which are well known to one of skill in the art, includingbut not limited to immunohistochemistry, Western blot analysis, (i.e.),immunoblotting, ELISA, immunoprecipitation, lateral flow immunoassay,radioimmunoassay, etc.

While it is not necessary to normalize the expression ratio of PSA/PSMAto expression of a housekeeping protein or gene since the use of a ratiois effectively “self-normalizing,” one of skill in the art might choosesuch an approach to reduce variability among samples or among differentsubjects. Thus, the difference between the expression levels of PSA/PSMAor PSMA alone in circulating tumor cells can be normalized to theexpression level of control proteins or nucleic acids, e.g. housekeepinggenes whose expression levels are known to be relatively invariant.Exemplary control genes include, but are not limited to, β-actin, andglyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH).

Determining Expression of PSA/PSMA or PSMA

The methods and assays provided herein relate to diagnosing prostatecancer status (e.g., likelihood to respond to hormonal therapies),monitoring prostate cancer progression or monitoring treatment efficacyin a subject. The term “determining the ratio of expression levels ofPSA/PSMA” can refer to the determination of the presence or amount ofPSA/PSMA expression products, e.g. mRNA transcript(s), and/or thedetermination of the presence and/or amount of PSA/PSMA protein(s). Thedetermination of the presence or amount of such expression products canbe accomplished by any means known in the art.

In one embodiment, measurement of the nucleic acid level of PSA/PSMAexpression can be assessed by separation of nucleic acid molecules (e.g.RNA or cDNA) obtained from the circulating tumor cells in agarose orpolyacrylamide gels, followed by hybridization with PSA− or PSMA−specific oligonucleotide probes. This approach requires a considerableamount of cellular material. Alternatively, the expression level can bedetermined by the labeling of nucleic acid obtained from the samplefollowed by separation on a sequencing gel. Comparison of expressionlevels can be accomplished visually or by means of a densitometer.Methods for the detection of mRNA or expression products are known tothe person skilled in the art.

Alternatively, nucleic acid levels of PSA/PSMA expression can bedetected using a DNA array or microarray approach. Typically, samplenucleic acids derived from subjects to be tested are processed andlabeled, preferably with a fluorescent label. Subsequently, such nucleicacid molecules can be used in a hybridization approach with immobilizedcapture probes corresponding to the PSA- or PSMA molecule. Suitablemeans for carrying out microarray analyses are known to the personskilled in the art.

In another embodiment, the nucleic acid level of PSA/PSMA or PSMAexpression is detected using quantitative RT-PCR, including e.g.,real-time PCR following reverse transcription of PSA- and PSMA mRNAtranscripts. In some embodiments, Taqman, Molecular Beacon probes orother FRET-based probes can be used for quantitative PCR detection.Methods relating to the use of such probes are well known to those ofskill in the art.

In another embodiment, in situ RNA hybridization (RNA-ish) assays areused to quantitatively measure RNA transcripts at the single moleculelevel in single cells. In one embodiment, a QUANTIGENE VIEWRNA™ assay(AFFYMETRIX™, Santa Clara, Calif.) is used to measure gene expressionlevels of PSA/PSMA or PSMA alone.

Determination of protein expression levels of PSA and PSMA or of anyfragments, homologues or derivatives thereof can be carried out usingany suitable detection technique known in the art. In some embodiments,the protein levels of PSA and PSMA are determined immunologically, e.g.by using antibody reagents specific for the PSA and PSMA proteins.

Determination of the protein levels of the PSA/PSMA protein can beaccomplished, for example, by the use of antibody reagents as describedherein in a Western blot analysis. Alternatively, proteins can beseparated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis systems.Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis is well known in the art andtypically involves iso-electric focusing along a first dimensionfollowed by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis along a second dimension. Thesemethods also require a considerable amount of cellular material. Theanalysis of 2D SDS-PAGE gels can be performed by determining theintensity of protein spots on the gel, or can be performed using immunedetection. In other embodiments, protein samples are analyzed by massspectroscopy.

Immunological tests can be used with the methods and assays describedherein and include, for example, competitive and non-competitive assaysystems using techniques such as Western blots, radioimmunoassay likeRIA (radio-linked immunoassay), ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbentassay), “sandwich” immunoassays, immunoprecipitation assays,immunodiffusion assays, agglutination assays, e.g. latex agglutination,complement-fixation assays, immunoradiometric assays, fluorescentimmunoassays, e.g. FIA (fluorescence-linked immunoassay),chemiluminescence immunoassays, electrochemiluminescence immunoassay(ECLIA) and protein A immunoassays. Such assays are routine and wellknown to those of skill in the art.

Where circulating tumor cells tend to be relatively rare, methods suitedto the measurement of PSA/PSMA and their ratio in single cells are ofparticular interest. Microfluidic capture as described herein above, andin the Examples section permits enrichment for CTCs and fluorescentmicroscopic analyses of individual cells stained for PSA and PSMA withlabeled antibody reagents.

Reference Values

The terms “reference value,” “reference level,” “reference sample,” and“reference” are used interchangeably herein and refer to the level ofPSMA expression or PSA/PSMA expression in a known sample against whichanother sample (i.e., one obtained from a subject having a cancersuspected to be castration-resistant or hormone therapy resistant) iscompared. A reference value is useful for determining the amount of PSMAexpression or ratio of PSA/PSMA expression or the relativeincrease/decrease of such expressional levels/ratios in a biologicalsample. A reference value serves as a reference level for comparison,such that samples can be normalized to an appropriate standard in orderto infer the presence, absence or extent of castrate-resistance orhormone therapy-resistance of a prostate cancer in a subject.

In one embodiment, a biological standard is obtained at an earlier timepoint (e.g., prior to the onset of a prostate cancer that does notrespond to hormonal therapies) from the same individual that is to betested or treated as described herein. Alternatively, a standard can befrom the same individual having been taken at a time after the onset ordiagnosis of a hormone-resistant cancer. In such instances, thereference value can provide a measure of the efficacy of treatment. Itcan be useful to use as a reference for a given patient a level or ratiofrom a sample taken after prostate cancer diagnosis but before theadministration of any therapy to that patient.

Alternatively, a reference value can be obtained, for example, from aknown biological sample from a different individual (e.g., not theindividual being tested) that is e.g., substantially free of hormonetherapy-resistant or castration-resistant prostate cancer or that isknown to be a non-responder to hormone therapy treatment for e.g.,castration-resistant prostate cancer. A known sample can also beobtained by pooling samples from a plurality of individuals to produce areference value or range of values over an averaged population, whereina reference value represents an average level of PSMA or an averageratio of PSA/PSMA among a population of individuals (e.g., a populationof individuals having hormone-resistant prostate cancer or a populationof individuals having a hormone-sensitive prostate cancer). Thus, thelevel of PSMA or PSA/PSMA in a reference value obtained in this manneris representative of an average level of this marker in a generalpopulation of individuals having prostate cancer, or a population ofindividuals having a hormone therapy-resistant prostate cancer. Anindividual sample is compared to this population reference value bycomparing expression of PSMA or PSA/PSMA from a sample relative to thepopulation reference value. Generally, a decrease in the amount of PSMAor an increase in the ratio of PSA/PSMA over the reference value (e.g.,a reference obtained from subjects having prostate cancer) indicates orpredicts the presence of hormone therapy resistance, while an increasein the amount of PSMA or a decrease in the ratio of PSA/PSMA indicatesor predicts that the cancer is less likely to be resistant to hormonaltherapies. The converse is contemplated in cases where a reference valueis obtained from a population of subjects having hormone-resistantprostate cancer. It should be noted that there is often variabilityamong individuals in a population, such that some individuals will havehigher levels of PSMA or PSA/PSMA expression, while other individualshave lower levels of expression. However, one skilled in the art canmake logical inferences on an individual basis regarding the detectionand treatment of cancer as described herein.

In one embodiment, a range of values for PSA/PSMA or PSMA in circulatingtumor cells can be defined for a plurality of hormone-sensitiveindividuals and for a plurality of hormone-resistant individuals havingprostate cancer. Provided that the number of individuals in each groupis sufficient, one can define a range of PSA/PSMA values for eachpopulation. These values can be used to define cut-off points forselecting a therapy or for monitoring progression of disease. Thus, oneof skill in the art can determine a ratio of PSA/PSMA and compare thevalue to the ranges in each particular sub-population to aid indetermining the status of disease and the recommended course oftreatment. Such value ranges are analogous to e.g., HDL and LDLcholesterol levels detected clinically. For example, LDL levels below100 mg/dL are considered optimal and do not require therapeuticintervention, while LDL levels above 190 mg/dL are considered ‘veryhigh’ and will likely require some intervention. One of skill in the artcan readily define similar parameters for PSA/PSMA ratios inhormone-sensitive and hormone-resistant prostate cancers. These valueranges can be provided to clinicians, for example, on a chart,programmed into a PDA etc.

A standard comprising a reference value or range of values can also besynthesized. A known amount of PSMA or PSA/PSMA (or a series of knownamounts) can be prepared within the typical expression range for PSMA orPSA/PSMA that is observed in a general prostate cancer population. Thismethod has an advantage of being able to compare the extent of diseasein one or more individuals in a mixed population. This method can alsobe useful for subjects who lack a prior sample to act as a referencevalue or for routine follow-up post-diagnosis. This type of method canalso allow standardized tests to be performed among several clinics,institutions, or countries etc.

Pharmaceutically Acceptable Carriers

Therapeutic compositions of the agents disclosed herein contain aphysiologically tolerable carrier together with an active agent asdescribed herein, dissolved or dispersed therein as an activeingredient. As used herein, the terms “pharmaceutically acceptable”,“physiologically tolerable” and grammatical variations thereof, as theyrefer to compositions, carriers, diluents and reagents, are usedinterchangeably and represent that the materials are capable ofadministration to or upon a mammal without toxicity or the production ofundesirable physiological effects such as nausea, dizziness, gastricupset and the like. A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier will notpromote the raising of an immune response to an agent with which it isadmixed, unless so desired. The preparation of a pharmacologicalcomposition that contains active ingredients dissolved or dispersedtherein is well understood in the art and need not be limited based onformulation. Typically such compositions are prepared as injectableeither as liquid solutions or suspensions, however, solid forms suitablefor solution, or suspensions, in liquid prior to use can also beprepared. The preparation can also be emulsified or presented as aliposome composition. The active ingredient can be mixed with excipientswhich are pharmaceutically acceptable and compatible with the activeingredient and in amounts suitable for use in the therapeutic methodsdescribed herein.

Suitable excipients include, for example, water, saline, dextrose,glycerol, ethanol or the like and combinations thereof. In addition, ifdesired, the composition can contain minor amounts of auxiliarysubstances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering agentsand the like which enhance the effectiveness of the active ingredient.Therapeutic compositions used herein can include pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts of the components therein. Pharmaceutically acceptablesalts include the acid addition salts (formed with the free amino groupsof the polypeptide) that are formed with inorganic acids such as, forexample, hydrochloric or phosphoric acids, or such organic acids asacetic, tartaric, mandelic and the like. Salts formed with the freecarboxyl groups can also be derived from inorganic bases such as,sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium or ferric hydroxides, and suchorganic bases as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, 2-ethylamino ethanol,histidine, procaine and the like.

Physiologically tolerable carriers are well known in the art. Exemplaryliquid carriers are sterile aqueous solutions that contain no materialsin addition to the active ingredients and water, or contain a buffersuch as sodium phosphate at physiological pH value, physiological salineor both, such as phosphate-buffered saline. Still further, aqueouscarriers can contain more than one buffer salt, as well as salts such assodium and potassium chlorides, dextrose, polyethylene glycol and othersolutes. Liquid compositions can also contain liquid phases in additionto and to the exclusion of water. Exemplary of such additional liquidphases are glycerin, vegetable oils such as cottonseed oil, andwater-oil emulsions. The amount of an active agent used in the methodsdescribed herein that will be effective in the treatment of a particulardisorder or condition will depend on the nature of the disorder orcondition, and can be determined by standard clinical techniques.

Prostate Cancer and Treatment Thereof

Prostate cancer can be treated using a variety of approaches. Typically,prostate cancer when first diagnosed is responsive to testosterone, andthe growth of the prostate cancer can be slowed or inhibited by usingtestosterone inhibitors or by otherwise reducing the availabletestosterone. For slow growing prostate cancer in older males, often notherapy is recommended because other causes of mortality are more likelyto dominate in this population and the side-effects of therapy canadversely impact the quality of life in this subset of patients.Typically, in younger males at this stage of disease, hormone therapy isused for treatment of prostate cancer and promotes remission in manypatients.

Unfortunately, after remission prostate cancer often returns in a formnon-responsive to withdrawal of testosterone, i.e., castration-resistantprostate cancer that is almost always terminal. Such hormone resistantprostate cancers can be treated with surgical intervention; however, notall prostate cancers are suitable for surgery. When required, treatmentcan also include local radiation, and/or complete or partial removal ofthe prostate and/or even orchieoctomy (castration to reduce testosteronelevels). Aggressive prostate cancers that are resistant to surgicalintervention can be treated with chemotherapy. Such chemotherapeuticagents include adriamycin, docetaxel, estramustine, mitoxantrone,paclitaxel, other taxanes, prednisone, and immunotherapy targetingvarious antigens, such as using Sipuleucel, vaccines and nilutamide,among others and can be administered alone or in a combination.

Application of the Methods and Assays Described Herein to DirectTreatment

In general, when a subject is first diagnosed with prostate cancer, theyare treated with a standard hormonal therapy (e.g., leuprolide) to whichessentially everyone initially responds. However, the recurrence ofprostate cancer in spite of treatment with e.g., leuprolide occurs inmost patients within a few years. In one embodiment, the detection ofincreasing values of PSA/PSMA expression ratios over time duringtreatment with a first-line therapy can permit one to detect signs ofresistance to the first-line therapy earlier than the detection of e.g.,tumor size, metastases, or clinical development of secondary cancersresulting from resistance of the prostate cancer to the therapy.

In addition, one can use the methods and assays described herein todirect treatment of a prostate cancer that becomes resistant to afirst-line hormonal therapy. In an exemplary embodiment, a subjecthaving prostate cancer develops resistance to a first-line hormonaltherapy, such as leuprolide. At this stage, a new therapy will need tobe selected for treatment of the prostate cancer. Thus, one candetermine the expression ratio of PSA/PSMA prior to initiation of asecond-line therapy (e.g., abiraterone acetate or a chemotherapeuticagent) and serially monitor the PSA/PSMA expression ratios duringtreatment with the second-line therapy over time. If the PSA/PSMA ratiolevels decrease during or following treatment, then the treatment isconsidered to be effective. In such cases, the treatment is continued,and/or the dose/regimen etc. is simply adjusted. However, if thePSA/PSMA ratio remains the same or increases during the period oftreatment with a second-line therapy, one can discontinue thatparticular treatment and initiate a treatment regimen with a differentagent that has not been previously administered to the subject. Whilethe present clinical guidelines are unclear as to whether one of skillin the art should first treat with a second-line hormonal agent such asabiraterone acetate or a chemotherapeutic agent, the methods and assaysdescribed herein can readily assess an efficacious treatment.Alternatively, the methods and assays described herein can efficientlyidentify a non-efficacious treatment, permitting one to select a newtherapy for the subject rapidly.

Chemotherapeutic Agents

In some embodiments, the methods for treating a prostate cancer canfurther include the use of one or more additional anti-cancer orchemotherapeutic agents. In some embodiments, the anti-cancer agentcomprises an agent from the taxane family including, but not limited to,paclitaxel (Taxol™), docetaxel (Taxotere™), cabazitaxel (Jevtana™;XRP-6258), and analogs thereof (i.e., XRP9881; see Ojima and Geney, CurrOpin Investig Drugs 4:73 7, 2004). Members of this class of moleculesare β-tubulin binders and stabilize microtubules in a polymerized form.In one embodiment, the anti-cancer agent comprises docetaxol. In anotherembodiment, the anti-cancer agent comprises cabazitaxel.

Non-limiting examples of chemotherapeutic agents can include alkylatingagents such as thiotepa and CYTOXAN® cyclophosphamide; alkyl sulfonatessuch as busulfan, improsulfan and piposulfan; aziridines such asbenzodopa, carboquone, meturedopa, and uredopa; ethylenimines andmethylamelamines including altretamine, triethylenemelamine,trietylenephosphoramide, triethiylenethiophosphoramide andtrimethylolomelamine; acetogenins (especially bullatacin andbullatacinone); a camptothecin (including the synthetic analoguetopotecan); bryostatin; callystatin; CC-1065 (including its adozelesin,carzelesin and bizelesin synthetic analogues); cryptophycins(particularly cryptophycin 1 and cryptophycin 8); dolastatin;duocarmycin (including the synthetic analogues, KW-2189 and CB1-TM1);eleutherobin; pancratistatin; a sarcodictyin; spongistatin; nitrogenmustards such as chlorambucil, chlornaphazine, cholophosphamide,estramustine, ifosfamide, mechlorethamine, mechlorethamine oxidehydrochloride, melphalan, novembichin, phenesterine, prednimustine,trofosfamide, uracil mustard; nitrosoureas such as carmustine,chlorozotocin, fotemustine, lomustine, nimustine, and ranimnustine;antibiotics such as the enediyne antibiotics (e.g., calicheamicin,especially calicheamicin gamma1I and calicheamicin omegaI1 (see, e.g.,Agnew, Chem. Intl. Ed. Engl., 33: 183-186 (1994)); dynemicin, includingdynemicin A; bisphosphonates, such as clodronate; an esperamicin; aswell as neocarzinostatin chromophore and related chromoprotein enediyneantibiotic chromophores), aclacinomysins, actinomycin, authramycin,azaserine, bleomycins, cactinomycin, carabicin, caminomycin,carzinophilin, chromomycinis, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, detorubicin,6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine, ADRIAMYCIN® doxorubicin (includingmorpholino-doxorubicin, cyanomorpholino-doxorubicin,2-pyrrolino-doxorubicin and deoxydoxorubicin), epirubicin, esorubicin,idarubicin, marcellomycin, mitomycins such as mitomycin C, mycophenolicacid, nogalamycin, olivomycins, peplomycin, potfiromycin, puromycin,quelamycin, rodorubicin, streptonigrin, streptozocin, tubercidin,ubenimex, zinostatin, zorubicin; anti-metabolites such as methotrexateand 5-fluorouracil (5-FU); folic acid analogues such as denopterin,methotrexate, pteropterin, trimetrexate; purine analogs such asfludarabine, 6-mercaptopurine, thiamiprine, thioguanine; pyrimidineanalogs such as ancitabine, azacitidine, 6-azauridine, carmofur,cytarabine, dideoxyuridine, doxifluridine, enocitabine, floxuridine;anti-adrenals such as aminoglutethimide, mitotane, trilostane; folicacid replenisher such as frolinic acid; aceglatone; aldophosphamideglycoside; aminolevulinic acid; eniluracil; amsacrine; bestrabucil;bisantrene; edatraxate; defofamine; demecolcine; diaziquone;elformithine; elliptinium acetate; an epothilone; etoglucid; galliumnitrate; hydroxyurea; lentinan; lonidainine; maytansinoids such asmaytansine and ansamitocins; mitoguazone; mitoxantrone; mopidanmol;nitraerine; pentostatin; phenamet; pirarubicin; losoxantrone;podophyllinic acid; 2-ethylhydrazide; procarbazine; PSK® polysaccharidecomplex (JHS Natural Products, Eugene, Oreg.); razoxane; rhizoxin;sizofuran; spirogermanium; tenuazonic acid; triaziquone;2,2′,2″-trichlorotriethylamine; trichothecenes (especially T-2 toxin,verracurin A, roridin A and anguidine); urethan; vindesine; dacarbazine;mannomustine; mitobronitol; mitolactol; pipobroman; gacytosine;arabinoside (“Ara-C”); cyclophosphamide; thiotepa; chloranbucil; GEMZAR®gemcitabine; 6-thioguanine; mercaptopurine; platinum analogs such ascisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin; vinblastine; platinum; etoposide(VP-16); ifosfamide; mitoxantrone; vincristine; NAVELBINE®. vinorelbine;novantrone; teniposide; edatrexate; daunomycin; aminopterin; xeloda;ibandronate; irinotecan (Camptosar, CPT-11) (including the treatmentregimen of irinotecan with 5-FU and leucovorin); topoisomerase inhibitorRFS 2000; difluoromethylornithine (DMFO); retinoids such as retinoicacid; capecitabine; combretastatin; leucovorin (LV); oxaliplatin,including the oxaliplatin treatment regimen (FOLFOX); lapatinib(Tykerb®); inhibitors of PKC-alpha, Raf, H-Ras, EGFR (e.g., erlotinib(Tarceva®)) and VEGF-A that reduce cell proliferation andpharmaceutically acceptable salts, acids or derivatives of any of theabove.

Dosage and Administration

In one aspect, the methods described herein provide a method fortreating prostate cancer in a subject. In one embodiment, the subjectcan be a mammal. In another embodiment, the mammal can be a human,although the approach is effective with respect to all mammals. In oneembodiment, the method comprises administering to the subject aneffective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an agentthat results in an increase in PSMA expression or a decrease in PSA/PSMAratio, in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

The dosage range for the agent depends upon the potency, and includesamounts large enough to produce the desired effect, e.g., an increase inPSMA expression or a decrease in PSA/PSMA ratio. The dosage should notbe so large as to cause unacceptable adverse side effects. Generally,the dosage will vary with the type of agent or inhibitor (e.g., anantibody or fragment, small molecule, siRNA, etc.), and with the age,condition, and sex of the patient. The dosage can be determined by oneof skill in the art and can also be adjusted by the individual physicianin the event of any complication. Typically, the dosage will range from0.001 mg/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight. In some embodiments, thedosage range is from 0.001 mg/kg body weight to 1 g/kg body weight, from0.001 mg/kg body weight to 0.5 g/kg body weight, from 0.001 mg/kg bodyweight to 0.1 g/kg body weight, from 0.001 mg/kg body weight to 50 mg/kgbody weight, from 0.001 mg/kg body weight to 25 mg/kg body weight, from0.001 mg/kg body weight to 10 mg/kg body weight, from 0.001 mg/kg bodyweight to 5 mg/kg body weight, from 0.001 mg/kg body weight to 1 mg/kgbody weight, from 0.001 mg/kg body weight to 0.1 mg/kg body weight, from0.001 mg/kg body weight to 0.005 mg/kg body weight. Alternatively, insome embodiments the dosage range is from 0.1 g/kg body weight to 5 g/kgbody weight, from 0.5 g/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight, from 1g/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight, from 1.5 g/kg body weight to 5g/kg body weight, from 2 g/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight, from2.5 g/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight, from 3 g/kg body weight to 5g/kg body weight, from 3.5 g/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight, from4 g/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight, from 4.5 g/kg body weight to 5g/kg body weight, from 4.8 g/kg body weight to 5 g/kg body weight. Inone embodiment, the dose range is from 5 μg/kg body weight to 30 μg/kgbody weight. Alternatively, the dose range will be titrated to maintainserum levels between 5 μg/mL and 30 μg/mL.

Administration of the doses recited above can be repeated for a limitedperiod of time or as necessary. In some embodiments, the doses are givenonce a day, or multiple times a day, for example but not limited tothree times a day. In a preferred embodiment, the doses recited aboveare administered daily for several weeks or months. The duration oftreatment depends upon the subject's clinical progress andresponsiveness to therapy. Continuous, relatively low maintenance dosesare contemplated after an initial higher therapeutic dose.

A therapeutically effective amount is an amount of an agent that issufficient to produce a statistically significant, measurable change ine.g., PSMA or PSA/PSMA ratio, tumor size, tumor volume, tumor growthrate, etc. (see “Efficacy Measurement” below). Such effective amountscan be gauged in clinical trials as well as animal studies for a giveninhibitor.

Agents useful in the methods and compositions described herein can beadministered topically, intravenously (by bolus or continuous infusion),orally, by inhalation, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly,subcutaneously, intracavity, and can be delivered by peristaltic means,if desired, or by other means known by those skilled in the art. For thetreatment of tumors, the agent can be administered systemically, oralternatively, can be administered directly to the tumor e.g., byintratumor injection or by injection into the tumor's primary bloodsupply.

Therapeutic compositions containing at least one agent can beconventionally administered in a unit dose. The term “unit dose” whenused in reference to a therapeutic composition refers to physicallydiscrete units suitable as unitary dosage for the subject, each unitcontaining a predetermined quantity of active material calculated toproduce the desired therapeutic effect in association with the requiredphysiologically acceptable diluent, i.e., carrier, or vehicle.

An agent can be targeted by means of a targeting moiety, such as e.g.,an antibody or targeted liposome technology. In some embodiments, anagent or inhibitor can be targeted to tissue- or tumor-specific targetsby using bispecific antibodies, for example produced by chemical linkageof an anti-ligand antibody (Ab) and an Ab directed toward a specifictarget. To avoid the limitations of chemical conjugates, molecularconjugates of antibodies can be used for production of recombinantbispecific single-chain Abs directing ligands and/or chimeric inhibitorsto cell surface molecules. The addition of an antibody to an agent orinhibitor permits the agent attached to accumulate additively at thedesired target site. Antibody-based or non-antibody-based targetingmoieties can be employed to deliver a ligand or the inhibitor to atarget site. Preferably, a natural binding agent for an unregulated ordisease associated antigen is used for this purpose.

Efficacy Measurement

The efficacy of a given treatment for a prostate cancer can bedetermined by the skilled clinician. However, a treatment is considered“effective treatment,” as the term is used herein, if any one or all ofthe signs or symptoms of, as but one example, cancer are altered in abeneficial manner, other clinically accepted symptoms or markers ofdisease are improved or ameliorated, e.g., by at least 10% followingtreatment with an inhibitor. Efficacy can also be measured by failure ofan individual to worsen as assessed by hospitalization or need formedical interventions (e.g., progression of the disease is halted or atleast slowed). Methods of measuring these indicators are known to thoseof skill in the art and/or described herein. Treatment includes anytreatment of a disease in an individual or an animal (some non-limitingexamples include a human, or a mammal) and includes: (1) inhibiting thedisease, e.g., arresting, or slowing the pathogenic growth of cancercells; or (2) relieving the disease, e.g., causing regression ofsymptoms, reducing the size of a tumor; and (3) preventing or reducingthe likelihood of the development of a castration-resistant cancer or ametastatic disease thereof.

An effective amount for the treatment of cancer (e.g., a prostatecancer) means that amount which, when administered to a mammal in needthereof, is sufficient to result in effective treatment as that term isdefined herein, for that disease. Efficacy of an agent can be determinedby assessing physical indicators of cancer, such as e.g., tumor size,tumor volume, tumor growth rate, metastatic phenotype, etc.

In one embodiment, efficacy of a treatment can be determined bymeasuring a decrease in PSA/PSMA ratios, as described herein. In anotherembodiment, efficacy of a treatment can be determined by there-emergence of sensitivity to a hormone therapy for prostate cancer(e.g., leuprolide sensitivity).

Monitoring Prostate Cancer

In some embodiments, the methods and assays disclosed herein are used tomonitor progression of prostate cancer from a cancer that responds tohormone therapy to a prostate cancer that does not respond to a hormonetherapy. Further, the methods and assays disclosed herein can be used tomonitor the reverse progression (e.g., progression from a hormonenon-responsive prostate cancer to a more responsive prostate cancer)upon treatment with a prostate cancer therapy. Monitoring can occur e.g.during a treatment procedure or during a certain period of time,typically during 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 6 months, 1 year, 2years, 3 years, 5 years, 10 years, or any other period of time. One ofskill in the art can compare the ratio of expression of PSA/PSMA incirculating tumor cells compared to a reference value in any type ofperiodic time segment, e.g. every week, every 2 weeks, every month,every 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12 months, every 1.5 year, every2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 years, during any period of time, e.g.,during 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 months,1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 or 20 years, respectively. In someembodiments, the treatment scheme being monitored can be adjusted, e.g.enforced or attenuated, or altered in any suitable manner incorrespondence with the results of the monitoring process.

The term “progression of prostate cancer” as used herein relates to aswitch between different stages of prostate cancer development, e.g.stages 0 and I to IV of the TNM classification, or any other stage orsub-stage, starting from a healthy condition up to a terminal cancerscenario. Typically, progression towards hormone-resistant prostatecancers is accompanied by an increase in the ratio of expression ofPSA/PSMA in a test sample in comparison to a previous test sample fromthe same individual, e.g. in comparison to a sample derived from ahormone-dependent prostate tumor or tumor control or a hormone-sensitiveprostate tumor or tumor control.

Systems

Embodiments of the technology described herein also provide for systems(and computer readable media for causing computer systems) to perform amethod for diagnosing a castration-resistant prostate cancer in asubject, assessing a subject's risk of developing a castration-resistantprostate cancer, or monitoring efficacy of a treatment administered fora castration-resistant prostate cancer.

Embodiments of the technology can be described through functionalmodules, which are defined by computer executable instructions recordedon computer readable media and which cause a computer to perform methodsteps when executed. The modules are segregated by function for the sakeof clarity. However, it should be understood that the modules/systemsneed not correspond to discreet blocks of code and the describedfunctions can be carried out by the execution of various code portionsstored on various media and executed at various times. Furthermore, itshould be appreciated that the modules may perform other functions, thusthe modules are not limited to having any particular functions or set offunctions.

The computer readable storage media #30 can be any available tangiblemedia that can be accessed by a computer. Computer readable storagemedia includes volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removabletangible media implemented in any method or technology for storage ofinformation such as computer readable instructions, data structures,program modules or other data. Computer readable storage media includes,but is not limited to, RAM (random access memory), ROM (read onlymemory), EPROM (eraseable programmable read only memory), EEPROM(electrically eraseable programmable read only memory), flash memory orother memory technology, CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory), DVDs(digital versatile disks) or other optical storage media, magneticcassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magneticstorage media, other types of volatile and non-volatile memory, and anyother tangible medium which can be used to store the desired informationand which can accessed by a computer including and any suitablecombination of the foregoing. Computer-readable storage media do notencompass a signal.

Computer-readable data embodied on one or more computer-readable storagemedia may define instructions, for example, as part of one or moreprograms that, as a result of being executed by a computer, instruct thecomputer to perform one or more of the functions described herein,and/or various embodiments, variations and combinations thereof. Suchinstructions may be written in any of a plurality of programminglanguages, for example, Java, J#, Visual Basic, C, C#, C++, Fortran,Pascal, Eiffel, Basic, COBOL assembly language, and the like, or any ofa variety of combinations thereof. The computer-readable storage mediaon which such instructions are embodied may reside on one or more of thecomponents of either of a system, or a computer readable storage mediumas described herein, can be distributed across one or more of suchcomponents.

The computer-readable storage media can be transportable such that theinstructions stored thereon can be loaded onto any computer resource toimplement the aspects of the present invention discussed herein. Inaddition, it should be appreciated that the instructions stored on thecomputer-readable medium, described above, are not limited toinstructions embodied as part of an application program running on ahost computer. Rather, the instructions can be embodied as any type ofcomputer code (e.g., software or microcode) that can be employed toprogram a computer to implement aspects of the present invention. Thecomputer executable instructions can be written in a suitable computerlanguage or combination of several languages. Basic computationalbiology methods are known to those of ordinary skill in the art and aredescribed in, for example, Setubal and Meidanis et al., Introduction toComputational Biology Methods (PWS Publishing Company, Boston, 1997);Salzberg, Searles, Kasif, (Ed.), Computational Methods in MolecularBiology, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1998); Rashidi and Buehler,Bioinformatics Basics: Application in Biological Science and Medicine(CRC Press, London, 2000) and Ouelette and Bzevanis Bioinformatics: APractical Guide for Analysis of Gene and Proteins (Wiley & Sons, Inc.,2nd ed., 2001).

The functional modules of certain embodiments of the invention includeat minimum a determination system #40, a storage device #30, acomparison module #80, and a display module #110. The functional modulescan be executed on one, or multiple, computers, or by using one, ormultiple, computer networks. The determination system has computerexecutable instructions to provide e.g., expression information incomputer readable form.

The determination system #40, can comprise any system for detecting asignal representing the expression of PSA or PSMA. Such systems caninclude microscope data acquisition systems, including single cellfluorescence microscope data acquisition systems, RNA expression arrays,RT-PCR etc.

The information determined in the determination system can be read bythe storage device #30. As used herein the “storage device” is intendedto include any suitable computing or processing apparatus or otherdevice configured or adapted for storing data or information. Examplesof electronic apparatus suitable for use with the present inventioninclude stand-alone computing apparatus, data telecommunicationsnetworks, including local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN),Internet, Intranet, and Extranet, and local and distributed computerprocessing systems. Storage devices also include, but are not limitedto: magnetic storage media, such as floppy discs, hard disc storagemedia, magnetic tape, optical storage media such as CD-ROM, DVD,electronic storage media such as RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM and the like,general hard disks and hybrids of these categories such asmagnetic/optical storage media. The storage device is adapted orconfigured for having recorded thereon values representing informationrelating to the expression level of PSA/PSMA or PSMA. Such informationcan be provided in digital form that can be transmitted and readelectronically, e.g., via the Internet, on diskette, via USB (universalserial bus) or via any other suitable mode of communication.

As used herein, “stored” refers to a process for encoding information onthe storage device. Those skilled in the art can readily adopt any ofthe presently known methods for recording information on known media togenerate manufactures comprising expression information.

In one embodiment the reference data stored in the storage device to beread by the comparison module is e.g., expression data obtained from apopulation of subjects that do not have a castration-resistant prostatecancer.

The “comparison module” #80 can use a variety of available softwareprograms and formats for the comparison operative to compare sequenceinformation data determined in the determination system to referencesamples and/or stored reference data. In one embodiment, the comparisonmodule is configured to use pattern recognition techniques to compareinformation from one or more entries to one or more reference datapatterns. The comparison module can be configured using existingcommercially-available or freely-available software for comparingpatterns, and may be optimized for particular data comparisons that areconducted. The comparison module provides computer readable informationrelated to the expression of PSMA or PSA/PSMA in a subject.

The comparison module, or any other module of the invention, can includean operating system (e.g., UNIX) on which runs a relational databasemanagement system, a World Wide Web application, and a World Wide Webserver. World Wide Web application includes the executable codenecessary for generation of database language statements (e.g.,Structured Query Language (SQL) statements). Generally, the executableswill include embedded SQL statements. In addition, the World Wide Webapplication may include a configuration file which contains pointers andaddresses to the various software entities that comprise the server aswell as the various external and internal databases which must beaccessed to service user requests. The configuration file also directsrequests for server resources to the appropriate hardware—as may benecessary should the server be distributed over two or more separatecomputers. In one embodiment, the World Wide Web server supports aTCP/IP protocol. Local networks such as this are sometimes referred toas “Intranets.” An advantage of such Intranets is that they allow easycommunication with public domain databases residing on the World WideWeb (e.g., the GenBank or Swiss Pro World Wide Web site). Thus, in aparticular preferred embodiment of the present invention, users candirectly access data (via Hypertext links for example) residing onInternet databases using a HTML interface provided by Web browsers andWeb servers.

The comparison module provides a computer readable comparison resultthat can be processed in computer readable form by predefined criteria,or criteria defined by a user, to provide a content based in part on thecomparison result that can be stored and output as requested by a userusing a display module #110.

The content based on the comparison result, can be an increasedexpression ratio of PSA/PSMA or a decreased level of PSMA compared to areference indicating the presence of a castration resistant prostatecancer in a subject. Alternatively, the content based on the comparisonresult can be the decrease of PSA/PSMA ratio or an increased expressionof PSMA compared to a reference indicating that the subject isresponsive to the administered treatment.

In one embodiment of the invention, the content based on the comparisonresult is displayed on a computer monitor #120. In one embodiment of theinvention, the content based on the comparison result is displayedthrough printable media #130, #140. The display module can be anysuitable device configured to receive from a computer and displaycomputer readable information to a user. Non-limiting examples include,for example, general-purpose computers such as those based on IntelPENTIUM-type processor, Motorola PowerPC, Sun UltraSPARC,Hewlett-Packard PA-RISC processors, any of a variety of processorsavailable from Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) of Sunnyvale, Calif., or anyother type of processor, visual display devices such as flat paneldisplays, cathode ray tubes and the like, as well as computer printersof various types.

In one embodiment, a World Wide Web browser is used for providing a userinterface for display of the content based on the comparison result. Itshould be understood that other modules of the invention can be adaptedto have a web browser interface. Through the Web browser, a user mayconstruct requests for retrieving data from the comparison module. Thus,the user will typically point and click to user interface elements suchas buttons, pull down menus, scroll bars and the like conventionallyemployed in graphical user interfaces.

The methods described herein therefore provide for systems (and computerreadable media for causing computer systems) to perform methods fordiagnosing castration-resistant prostate cancers or assessing efficacyof a treatment for such cancers in a subject.

Systems and computer readable media described herein are merelyillustrative embodiments of the invention for performing methods ofdiagnosis in an individual, and are not intended to limit the scope ofthe invention. Variations of the systems and computer readable mediadescribed herein are possible and are intended to fall within the scopeof the invention.

The modules of the machine, or those used in the computer readablemedium, can assume numerous configurations. For example, function may beprovided on a single machine or distributed over multiple machines.

Kits

A kit is any manufacture (e.g., a package or container) comprising atleast one reagent, e.g., an antibody reagent(s), for specificallydetecting a marker of prostate cancer (e.g., PSMA and/or PSA), themanufacture being promoted, distributed, or sold as a unit forperforming the methods or assays described herein. When the kits, andmethods described herein are used for diagnosis and/or treatment of aprostate cancer, the PSMA or PSA detection probes or systems can beselected such that a positive result is obtained in at least about 20%,at least about 40%, at least about 60%, at least about 80%, at leastabout 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99% or in 100% of subjectsafflicted with a hormone therapy-resistant prostate cancer.

When the expression level of PSA/PSMA or PSMA is used in the methods andassays described herein, the expression level and/or activity ofPSA/PSMA or PSMA can be compared with the expression level of the markerin non-cancerous samples of the same type or to another reference valueor reference standard as described herein.

The kits described herein include reagents and/or components that permitassaying circulating tumor cells in a sample (e.g., circulating tumorcells isolated from a sample obtained from a subject). The kitsdescribed herein comprise components useful for assessing the presenceof a hormone therapy-resistant prostate cancer (e.g., in a sample suchas a subject sample). The kit can comprise one or more reagents capableof detecting the expression level of PSMA or PSA e.g., antibody reagentsspecific for PSMA or PSA. Such components or reagents can permitdetection of expression levels directly using e.g., detectable labels,or indirectly e.g., Western blotting of PSA/PSMA or PSMA. Suitablereagents for binding PSMA or PSA include polyclonal antibodies,monoclonal antibodies, or fragments thereof. In some embodiments, theantibody reagents are fixed to a substrate.

The kits described herein can optionally comprise additional componentsuseful for performing the methods and assays described herein. By way ofexample, the kit can comprise fluids (e.g., buffers) suitable forbinding an antibody with a protein with which it specifically binds, oneor more sample compartments, an instructional material which describesperformance of a method as described herein, a sample of normal cells, asample of cancer cells (e.g., circulating tumor cells), and the like.

In some embodiments, the kits described herein comprise one or more ofthe following: a probe for detecting PSMA or PSA/PSMA expression, PCRprimers for detecting such expression, a primer for reversetranscription of PSMA or PSA RNA to cDNA, a DNA polymerase, a reversetranscriptase, an anti-cancer agent (e.g., abiraterone acetate), anantibody directed against PSMA or PSA, buffers, solutions, etc.

Preferably, a diagnostic kit for use with the methods and assaysdisclosed herein contains detection reagents for PSA and PSMA proteins.Such detection reagents comprise in addition to antibody reagentsspecific for PSA and PSMA, for example, buffer solutions, labels orwashing liquids etc. Furthermore, the kit can comprise an amount of aknown protein, which can be used for a calibration of the kit or as aninternal control. Typically, a diagnostic kit for the detection ofPSA/PSMA expression products may comprise accessory ingredients like aPCR buffers, dNTPs, a polymerase, ions like bivalent cations ormonovalent cations as co-factors, hybridization solutions etc. Adiagnostic kit for the detection of PSA/PSMA proteins can also compriseaccessory ingredients like secondary affinity ligands, e.g., secondaryantibodies, detection dyes and any other suitable compound or liquidnecessary for the performance of a protein detection method known to theperson skilled in the art. Such ingredients are known to the personskilled in the art and may vary depending on the detection methodcarried out. Additionally, the kit may comprise an instruction leafletand/or may provide information as to the relevance of the obtainedresults.

Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used inconnection with the present application shall have the meanings that arecommonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. Further,unless otherwise required by context, singular terms shall includepluralities and plural terms shall include the singular.

It should be understood that this invention is not limited to theparticular methodology, protocols, and reagents, etc., described hereinand as such may vary. The terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescribing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to limit thescope of the present invention, which is defined solely by the claims.

All patents, patent applications, and publications identified areexpressly incorporated herein by reference for the purpose of describingand disclosing, for example, the methodologies described in suchpublications that might be used in connection with the presentinvention. These publications are provided solely for their disclosureprior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing in thisregard should be construed as an admission that the inventors are notentitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention or forany other reason. All statements as to the date or representation as tothe contents of these documents is based on the information available tothe applicants and does not constitute any admission as to thecorrectness of the dates or contents of these documents.

The present invention may be as defined in any one of the followingnumbered paragraphs.

1. An assay comprising: (a) determining the ratio of expression levelsof prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen(PSMA) in circulating tumor cells isolated from a biological sampleobtained from a subject determined to have prostate cancer, (b)comparing the ratio of expression levels determined in step (a) to areference value, and if the ratio is increased relative to the referencevalue identifying the subject as being unlikely to respond to hormonaltherapy, and if the ratio is the same or reduced relative to thereference value identifying the subject as likely to respond to hormonaltherapy.

2. The assay of paragraph 1, wherein the biological sample obtained froma subject comprises a blood sample.

3. The assay of paragraph 1, wherein the reference value is obtainedfrom a subject or population of subjects with prostate cancer.

4. The assay of paragraph 1, wherein the reference value is obtainedfrom the same subject at an earlier time point.

5. The assay of paragraph 1, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated using a microfluidic capture method.

6. The assay of paragraph 1, wherein the prostate cancer is metastaticprostate cancer.

7. The assay of paragraph 7, wherein the subject was previously beingtreated with a hormone therapy for prostate cancer, or is currentlybeing treated with a hormone therapy for prostate cancer.

8. The assay of paragraph 1, wherein the hormone therapy for prostatecancer comprises leuprolide.

9. The assay of paragraph 1, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by contacting the isolated circulating tumor cellswith antibody reagents specific for PSA and PSMA.

10. The assay of paragraph 9, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by immunofluorescence staining and/or automatedfluorescence microscopy.

11. An assay comprising: (a) determining the ratio of expression levelsof prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen(PSMA) in circulating tumor cells isolated from a biological sampleobtained from a subject undergoing treatment for prostate cancer, (b)comparing the ratio of expression levels determined in step (a) to areference value, wherein if the ratio determined in step (a) is reducedrelative to the reference value, identifying the subject as respondingto the treatment.

12. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the reference value comprises aratio of expression levels determined in the subject or a population ofsubjects prior to initiation of the treatment for prostate cancer.

13. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the reference value comprises aratio of expression levels determined in a population of subjectsdetermined to have castration-resistant prostate cancer.

14. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the biological sample obtainedfrom a subject comprises a blood sample.

15. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the prostate cancer is metastaticprostate cancer.

16. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the treatment for prostate cancercomprises leuprolide.

17. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated using a microfluidic capture method.

18. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by contacting the isolated circulating tumor cellswith antibody reagents specific for PSA and PSMA.

19. The assay of paragraph 18, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by immunofluorescence staining and/or automatedfluorescence microscopy.

20. The assay of paragraph 11, wherein the subject is being treated withbicalutamide, MVD3100, abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T,ketoconazole, TAK-700, or a taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

21. An assay comprising: (a) isolating circulating tumor cells (CTCs)from a blood sample obtained from a subject undergoing treatment forprostate cancer, (b) measuring the level of expression of prostatespecific antigen (PSA) and prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) inisolated CTCs, (c) determining the ratio of expression of PSA/PSMA, and(d) comparing the ratio of expression of PSA/PSMA to a reference value,wherein if the ratio determined in step (a) is reduced relative to thereference value, identifying the subject as responding to the treatment.

22. The assay of paragraph 21, wherein the reference value comprises aratio of expression levels determined in the subject or a population ofsubjects prior to initiation of the treatment for prostate cancer.

23. The assay of paragraph 21, wherein the reference value comprises aratio of expression levels determined in a population of subjectsdetermined to have castration-resistant prostate cancer.

24. The assay of paragraph 21, wherein the biological sample obtainedfrom a subject comprises a blood sample.

25. The assay of paragraph 21, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated using a microfluidic capture method.

26. The assay of paragraph 21, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by contacting the isolated circulating tumor cellswith antibody reagents specific for PSA and PSMA.

27. The assay of paragraph 26, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by immunofluorescence staining and/or automatedfluorescence microscopy.

28. The assay of paragraph 21, wherein the subject is being treated withbicalutamide, MVD3100, abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T,ketoconazole, TAK-700, or a taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

29. A method of treating a patient determined to have prostate cancer,the method comprising: administering to a patient determined to have aratio of prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostate specific membraneantigen (PSMA) expression in isolated circulating tumor cells that isincreased compared to that of a reference value, a pharmaceuticallyeffective amount of a prostate cancer agent that has not been previouslyadministered to the patient.

30. The method of paragraph 29, wherein the prostate cancer agent thathas not been previously administered is bicalutamide, MVD3100,abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecel T, ketoconazole, TAK-700, ora taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

31. The method of paragraph 29, wherein the subject is currentlyundergoing treatment with a hormone therapy for prostate cancer, or waspreviously treated with a hormone therapy for prostate cancer.

32. The method of paragraph 31, wherein the hormone therapy comprisesleuprolide.

33. The method of paragraph 31, wherein the hormone therapy isdiscontinued prior to treatment with the anti-cancer agent.

34. The method of paragraph 29, wherein the reference value is obtainedfrom a subject or population of subjects having prostate cancer.

35. The method of paragraph 29, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated using a microfluidic capture method.

36. The method of paragraph 29, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated from a blood sample obtained from the subject.

37. The method of paragraph 29, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by contacting the isolated circulating tumor cellswith antibody reagents specific for PSA and PSMA.

38. The method of paragraph 37, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by immunofluorescence staining and/or automatedfluorescence microscopy.

39. A method of determining if a subject is responsive to a prostatecancer treatment comprising assaying isolated circulating tumor cellsobtained from a subject being treated for prostate cancer to determinethe ratio of prostate specific antigen (PSA) to prostate specificmembrane antigen (PSMA) and comparing the ratio to a reference value,wherein if the ratio is reduced compared to the reference value,identifying the individual as being responsive to the prostate cancertreatment.

40. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the reference value comprises aratio of expression levels determined in the subject or a population ofsubjects prior to initiation of the treatment for prostate cancer.

41. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the reference value comprises aratio of expression levels determined in a population determined to havecastration-resistant prostate cancer.

42. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated using a microfluidic capture method.

43. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated from a blood sample obtained from the subject.

44. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by contacting the isolated circulating tumor cellswith antibody reagents specific for PSA and PSMA.

The method of paragraph 44, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by immunofluorescence staining and/or automatedfluorescence microscopy.

46. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the subject is being treatedwith bicalutamide, MVD3100, abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecelT, ketoconazole, TAK-700, or a taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

47. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the subject is being treatedwith a hormone therapy for prostate cancer.

48. The method of paragraph 47, wherein the hormone therapy comprisesleuprolide.

49. A method of determining if an individual is responsive to a prostatecancer treatment comprising: (i) isolating circulating tumor cellsobtained from a subject determined to have prostate cancer at a firsttime point and assaying for the ratio of prostate specific antigen (PSA)to prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA), (ii) administering aprostate cancer agent to the subject, and (iii) isolating circulatingtumor cells obtained from a subject determined to have prostate cancerat a second time point and assaying for the ratio of prostate specificantigen (PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA), and (iv)comparing the ratio of PSA/PSMA measured at the second time point to theratio of PSA/PSMA measured at the first time point, wherein if the ratioat the second time point is decreased compared to the ratio at the firsttime point, identifying the individual as being responsive to theprostate cancer treatment.

50. The method of paragraph 49, wherein the first time point is prior toinitiation of the treatment for prostate cancer.

51. The method of paragraph 49, wherein the first time point is afterdiscontinuation of a hormone therapy.

52. The method of paragraph 49, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated using a microfluidic capture method.

53. The method of paragraph 49, wherein the subject is being treatedwith bicalutamide, MVD3100, abiraterone acetate, cabazitaxel, sipulecelT, ketoconazole, TAK-700, or a taxane chemotherapeutic agent.

54. The method of paragraph 49, wherein the subject is being treatedwith a hormone therapy for prostate cancer.

55. The method of paragraph 54, wherein the hormone therapy comprisesleuprolide.

56. The method of paragraph 49, wherein the circulating tumor cells areisolated from a blood sample obtained from the subject.

57. The method of paragraph 49, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by contacting the isolated circulating tumor cellswith antibody reagents specific for PSA and PSMA.

58 The method of paragraph 57, wherein the expression levels of PSA andPSMA are determined by immunofluorescence staining and/or automatedfluorescence microscopy.

59. A method of treating a patient having prostate cancer, the methodcomprising: (i) isolating circulating tumor cells from a biologicalsample obtained from a subject, (ii) determining the ratio of prostatespecific antigen (PSA) to prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA)expression, (iii) if the PSA/PSMA expression ratio is increased comparedto that of a reference value, administering to the subject a prostatecancer agent that has not been previously administered to the subject.

EXAMPLES

Prostate cancer is initially responsive to androgen deprivation therapy(ADT), and reactivation of androgen receptor (AR) signaling in theabsence of or presence of reduced levels of androgen is thought tounderlie its progression to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).Despite potent new therapies targeting AR pathway components, there areno reliable biomarkers to guide their application in patients with CRPC.Here, microfluidic capture of circulating tumors cells (CTCs) was usedto measure AR signaling readouts before and after therapeuticinterventions. Single cell immunofluorescence analysis revealedpredominantly “AR-on” CTC signatures in untreated patients, compared toheterogeneous CTC populations in patients with CRPC. Initiation of firstline ADT induced a profound switch from “AR-on” to “AR-off” CTCs,whereas secondary hormonal therapy in CRPC resulted in variableresponses. An increase in “AR-on” CTCs despite treatment withabiraterone acetate was correlated with shorter time to treatmentdiscontinuation. Together, these studies demonstrate thattreatment-induced signaling responses are detectable within CTCs,permitting serial measurements of drug response to guide therapy inprostate and potentially other cancers. CTCs provide a better window onsensitivity to hormonal therapy than tumor load or tumor tissue biopsy;that is, measuring the ratio of PSA/PSMA in circulating tumor cells ismore predictive of hormonal resistance than measuring the expression orratio of PSA/PSMA in whole blood, serum or in a tissue biopsy sample.

Acquired resistance to first line hormonal therapy in prostate cancer isheterogeneous in the extent of androgen receptor pathway reactivation.Measurement of pre- and post-treatment AR signaling within CTCs helptarget such treatments to patients most likely to respond to second linetherapies.

Example 1: Background of the Study

Prostate cancer cells are highly dependent upon AR signaling for theirproliferation and survival. In men with metastatic prostate cancer,androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) results in durable responses in mostpatients (Chen Y, et al. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2008; 8: 440-8). Despitehigh rates of initial response to ADT, disease progression is invariablyobserved with tumor cells resuming proliferation despite continuedtreatment (termed castration-resistant prostate cancer or CRPC). Thepropensity of metastatic prostate cancer to spread to bone has limitedrepeated sampling of tumor deposits that have acquired castrationresistance, but insights into resistance mechanisms have emerged throughbone marrow biopsy and autopsy studies, as well as mouse modelingexperiments (Yuan X and Balk S P. Urol Oncol 2009; 27: 36-41).

The concept that CRPC results from reactivation of AR signaling despitelow levels of serum testosterone is consistent with a frequentlyobserved rise in serum prostate specific antigen (PSA), anandrogen-responsive gene product secreted into the blood by prostatecancer cells (Yuan X and Balk S P. Urol Oncol 2009; 27: 36-41; Scher H Iand Sawyers C L. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 8253-61). Potential mechanismsby which AR reactivation occurs in CRPC include variable levels of ARgene amplification (˜30% of cases) (Visakorpi T et al. Nat Genet 1995;9: 401-6; Brown R S et al. J Pathol 2002; 198: 237-44), activating ARmutations (Taplin M E et al. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21: 2673-8), oralternative mRNA splicing (˜10%) (Dehm S M et al. Cancer Res 2008; 68:5469-77). More rarely reported are increased expression levels (GregoryC W et al. Cancer Res 2001; 61: 4315-9) or activation (Gregory C W etal. J Biol Chem 2004; 279: 7119-30) of AR transcriptional coactivators,activation of modulatory kinase pathways (e.g. Ras, PI3kinase) (Bakin RE et al. Cancer Res 2003; 63: 1981-9), tyrosine phosphorylation of ARitself (Guo Z et al. Cancer Cell 2006; 10: 309-19), and increasedintratumoral androgen synthesis (Dillard P R et al. Mol Cell Endocrinol2008; 295: 115-20). The functional significance of reactivated ARsignaling in CRPC has been inferred from mouse xenograft models ofprostate cancer, in which even modest increases in AR gene expressioncause tumors to become resistant to castration therapy (Chen C D et al.Nat Med 2004; 10: 33-9).

The concept of AR reactivation in CRPC has become therapeuticallyrelevant with the development of potent novel inhibitors of the ARsignaling pathway (Tran C et al. Science 2009; 324: 787-90; de Bono J Set al. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1995-2005). The demonstration thatabiraterone acetate, a CYP17A1 inhibitor that potently suppressesadrenal and intratumoral steroid biosynthesis, increases overallsurvival in men with metastatic CRPC who have previously receivedchemotherapy lends support to the rationale of suppressing ARreactivation in CRPC (de Bono J S et al. N Engl J Med 2011; 364:1995-2005). Notably, there is a wide variation in patient response toabiraterone acetate as measured by serum PSA (de Bono J S et al. N EnglJ Med 2011; 364: 1995-2005), and there is an unmet need for reliablebiomarkers that can predict treatment response to abiraterone acetateand other potent inhibitors of AR signaling under development. Takingadvantage of recent technological advances in the capture, imaging, andmolecular characterization of rare CTCs shed into the vasculature fromotherwise poorly accessible metastatic tumor deposits (Stott S L et al.Sci Transl Med 2010; 2: 25ra3; Stott S L, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA2010; 107: 18392-7), a noninvasive “real time” measure of intratumoralAR signaling was established before and after initial or second linehormonal therapy in patients with metastatic prostate cancer.

Example 2: Results

Single Cell Measurement of AR Signaling Parameters in Prostate CTCs

To measure the status of AR signaling within individual cells, aquantitative immunofluorescence assay was established based on theexpression of AR regulated genes. It was reasoned that such a readoutwould be independent of mechanisms of AR reactivation in CRPC (e.g. ARamplification or mutation, ligand overexpression, or AR cofactormisregulation) and would therefore provide a clear measure of whetherthe AR pathway has been re-activated during the acquisition ofresistance to androgen deprivation therapy. To identify optimaldownstream readouts of AR signaling, a prostate cancer cell line (LNCaPcells) was subjected to androgen deprivation or stimulation, and useddigital gene expression (DGE) profiling to identify transcripts that aredifferentially regulated in response to changes in AR signaling (FIG.5). Among candidate gene products that are prostate cancer specific andfor which reliable antibodies are available, Prostate Specific Antigen(PSA; KLK3) and Prostate Specific Membrane Antigen (PSMA; FOLH1) wereselected as most consistently upregulated following AR activation and ARsuppression, respectively (FIG. 1A; FIG. 5; data not shown). Selectionof PSMA as a marker of AR suppression in an imaging study was alsorecently described by Evans et al. (Evans M J et al. Proc Natl Acad SciUSA 2011; 108: 9578-82).

To achieve multiparameter single cell analysis of AR activity, anautomated fluorescence microscopy scanning platform was adapted todistinctly and specifically measure four fluorescent emission spectrasimultaneously. Secondary fluorophores and optical band pass filterswere selected to avoid “cross-talk” between the multiple fluorescentsignals that are closely located on the electromagnetic spectrum, whilemaximizing signal intensity. The disclosed assay for quantitativemeasurement of signal intensity profiles for cells stained withantibodies against PSA and PSMA was developed using a model cell system(LNCaP). Treatment of androgen-starved LNCaP cells with the androgenR1881 revealed time-dependent progression from an initial “AR-off”(PSA−/PSMA+) to an intermediate “AR-mixed” (PSA+/PSMA+) phenotype, andfinally to an “AR-on” (PSA+/PSMA−) pattern (FIG. 1B; data not shown).The reverse progression was observed upon treatment with the ARinhibitor bicalutamide (FIG. 1C; data not shown). Similar results wereobserved using VCaP cells, another androgen responsive prostate cancercell line (FIG. 6).

^(HB)CTC-Chip parameters (Herringbone Circulating tumor cell: ^(HB)CTC)for this single cell AR signaling analysis were established by modelingLNCaP cells treated with R1881 or bicalutamide, spiked into controlblood specimens, captured on the ^(HB)CTC-Chip, and stained withantibodies against PSA and PSMA (AR signaling) along with anti-CD45 (toexclude contaminating leukocytes) and DAPI (nuclear morphology) (datanot shown). The four-color immunofluorescence imaging parametersestablished using LNCaP cells were then applied to accurately enumeratepatient-derived CTCs (FIG. 2A). Analysis of pretreatment blood samplesfrom metastatic prostate cancer patients revealed that CTCs weredetectable above the predetermined signal intensity threshold (derivedfrom analysis of healthy controls) in 72% of patients (N=15/21) (FIG.7). In contrast, in age-matched male patients with no known diagnosis ofcancer, CTCs were detectable above threshold in 0% of patients (N=0/21)(FIG. 7).

Homogeneous AR Signaling in CTCs from Untreated Patients with MetastaticProstate Cancer

CTCs were detectable in 4 of 5 (80%) patients with newly diagnosedmetastatic prostate cancer prior to the initiation of androgendeprivation therapy. AR activity was predominantly positive amongst thepatients with detectable CTCs, with the vast majority (median 99.1%,range 75%-100%) of isolated CTCs from each patient showing the “AR-on”(PSA+/PSMA−) phenotype (FIG. 2B; Table 1). The initiation of ADT intreatment-naïve metastatic prostate cancer patients with detectable CTCsresulted in transformation of the majority of CTCs from the “AR-on” tothe “AR-off” phenotype within one month, followed by the completedisappearance of CTCs by 3 months after initiation of therapy (FIGS.3A-3B; Table 1).

Heterogeneous AR Signaling in CTCs from Patients with CRPC

In marked contrast, CRPC patients with detectable CTCs pretreatment(N=11/16; 69%) displayed both intra-patient and inter-patientheterogeneity in CTC AR activity (FIGS. 2A-2B; Table 1). Most remarkablewas the abundance within each patient of CTCs with the “AR-off”(PSA−/PSMA+) signature (median 51.9%), as well as CTCs with an“AR-mixed” (PSA+/PSMA+) phenotype (median 17.6%). Despite the expectedreactivation of AR signaling in CRPC, only a relatively small fractionof CTCs in these patients had the “AR-on” (PSA+/PSMA−) phenotype (median11.1%). In contrast to the consistent treatment induced changes in ARsignaling patterns seen within CTCs of patients with CSPC, second linehormonal treatment in CRPC patients had varying effects on CTC numbersand AR phenotypes (FIGS. 4A-4D; Tables 1 and 2). This included patientstreated with the relatively weak hormonal agents ketoconazole (N=1) andbicalutamide (N=2), as well as the potent CYP17A1 inhibitor abirateroneacetate (N=13) (Supplementary Table S1). Four of 13 (31%) CRPC patientstreated with abiraterone acetate had a ≧50% decline in the percentage of“AR-on” CTCs within 2-5 weeks of therapy, and 6 of 13 (46%) CRPCpatients had a stable percentage of “AR-on” CTCs after therapy (FIGS.4A-4B; Tables 1 and 2), indicating that the reduction in systemicandrogen levels suppressed a subset of metastatic tumor cells withreactivated AR signaling. In contrast, 3 of 13 (23%) CRPC patients had a≧50% increase in the percentage of “AR-on” CTCs within the first 2-5weeks of therapy with abiraterone acetate, indicating increased ARsignaling despite therapy (FIGS. 4C-4D; Tables 1 and 2). Of note, anincrease in the percentage of “AR-on” CTCs despite abiraterone acetatetherapy was correlated with a significantly shorter time to treatmentdiscontinuation, a marker of disease progression (logrank P=0.031; datanot shown). In comparison, serum PSA response, defined as a maximaldecline of ≧50% in serum PSA (Scher H I et al. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26:1148-59), was not significantly correlated with time to treatmentdiscontinuation (logrank P=0.447).

Discussion

Cancer cells circulating in the peripheral blood provide a uniquelyaccessible source of tumor-derived material for molecular analyses. Inmetastatic prostate cancer, which primarily spreads to bone, theinability to noninvasively sample metastatic lesions has limited theability to individualize second line therapies according to mechanism ofdrug resistance. Thus, while potent new inhibitors of the AR pathway areunder active development, their clinical deployment still remainsempiric. Given the inter-patient variation in outcome, there is an unmetclinical need for a biomarker that can enable prediction of treatmentresponse for individual patients. Here, it is demonstrated that theactivity of the AR pathway can be monitored in CTCs. These resultssupport the relevance of CTCs as dynamic tumor-derived biomarkers,reflecting “real time” effects of cancer drugs on their therapeutictargets, and the potential of CTC signaling analysis to identify theearly emergence of resistance to therapy.

It was found that profound differences underlie the dramatic response ofpreviously untreated, castration-sensitive disease to androgendeprivation therapy, compared with the relatively limited effectivenessof even potent second line hormonal agents in castration-resistantdisease. CSPC is marked by the presence of uniform and strong “AR-on”CTC signals, with rapid switching to “AR-off” upon androgen withdrawal,preceding the disappearance of CTCs from the circulation. In contrast,CRPC is marked by striking heterogeneity among tumor cells fromindividual patients, as well as between different patients with similarclinical histories. Few “AR-on” cells are observed, and instead there isan abundance of both “AR-off” and “AR-mixed” CTCs. Together, these dataindicate that pathways other than AR signaling contribute to diseaseprogression in CRPC, and that the AR reactivation that does occur may bequalitatively altered despite the known overexpression of AR itself.Indeed, reactivation of AR signaling in CRPC appears not to be ascomplete as previously suspected, and even potent AR suppression in thissetting may be insufficient by itself to mediate dramatic tumorresponses. Rising serum PSA levels in patients with CRPC have been takenas evidence of strong AR reactivation and renewed susceptibility tohormonal manipulation. However, these serum measurements reflect totaltumor burden, which may be considerable, whereas single cell CTCanalysis suggests that within individual tumor cells, AR signaling isnot fully reactivated.

While AR reactivation is the dominant model to explain acquisition ofresistance to androgen withdrawal, the limited human data available areconsistent with the observations noted in this study that indicate anattenuated AR phenotype in CRPC. For instance, gene expression studiesof bone metastases have shown increased AR mRNA levels in CRPC(Stanbrough M et al. Cancer Res 2006; 66: 2815-25), and bone marrowbiopsy studies (Efstathiou E J Clin Oncol 2011) as well as CTC analysis(Darshan M S et al. Cancer Res 2011; 71: 6019-29) have demonstratednuclear AR localization (Efstathiou E J Clin Oncol 2011), butandrogen-activated genes have been found on average to be reduced 2- to3-fold in CRPC compared with primary untreated prostate cancer(Stanbrough M et al. Cancer Res 2006; 66: 2815-25; Mendiratta P et al. JClin Oncol 2009; 27: 2022-9). The most common acquired geneticalteration affecting AR, a median 1.6 to 5-fold gene amplification seenin ˜30% of cases (Visakorpi T et al. Nat Genet 1995; 9: 401-6; Brown RS, et al. J Pathol 2002; 198: 237-44), may not be sufficient to fullyovercome the effects of ligand withdrawal and re-establish fullAR-driven tumor cell proliferation. Indeed a recent analysis of genepromoters targeted by AR in cells that are sensitive to androgenwithdrawal versus cells with acquired resistance has demonstrated aqualitatively distinct subset of AR activated genes (Wang Q, et al. Cell2009; 138: 245-56; Cai C, et al. Cancer Cell 2011; 20: 457-71). Thus,expression analysis of downstream AR targeted genes in CTCs can providea functionally relevant measure of overall AR activity.

In addition to altered AR signaling, other AR-independent pathways,including PIK3CA-dependent signaling, have also been implicated in CRPCand may cooperate with partial AR reactivation in mediating diseaseprogression in prostate cancer (Carver B S, et al. Cancer Cell 2011; 19:575-86). Recent studies in mouse models of CRPC have suggested improvedresponses to combined AR and mTOR pathway inhibition (Carver B S, et al.Cancer Cell 2011; 19: 575-86). Given the potentially complex andheterogeneous mechanisms underlying CRPC, it is not surprising thattreatment with the potent CYP-17A1 inhibitor abiraterone acetate has avaried effect on the number and composition of CTCs. A subset ofpatients who did have measureable “AR-on” CTCs demonstrated a >50%decline in the percentage of this CTC subset within 2-5 weeks ofabiraterone acetate therapy (4 of 13 patients; 31%). Given the mechanismof drug action, these cases may be enriched for patients in whomintra-tumoral or adrenal gland synthesis of androgens plays a major rolein the development of castration-resistance. In contrast, tumors drivenby ligand-independent AR gene activation would not be expected to showany suppression in “AR-on” CTC numbers. Indeed, a rising fraction of“AR-on” CTCs despite continued abiraterone acetate therapy wasassociated with a poor outcome, defined as a significantly shorter timeto treatment discontinuation. In these patients, ligand-independent ARactivity can become a driver of tumor cell proliferation, leading totherapeutic failure. Potential mechanisms for the development ofresistance to abiraterone acetate in CRPC are the subject of intenseinvestigation (Cai C et al. Cancer Res 2011; 71: 6503-13). Furtherstudies linking such mechanistic insights with the application of noveltherapies targeting the relevant pathways can provide critical guidancein molecularly targeted therapy for CRPC.

In summary, the PSA/PSMA-based AR signaling assay in CTCs describedherein permits real time quantitative monitoring of intra-tumoral ARsignaling and its potential contribution to disease progression withinan individual patient. While this study was in progress, PET imagingusing radio-labeled antibodies against PSMA and PSA were reported asbiomarkers of androgen receptor signaling in prostate cancer mousexenografts treated with the investigational AR inhibitor MDV 3100 (EvansM J, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011; 108: 9578-82; Ulmert D, et al.Cancer Discovery 2012; 2: 320-7). If successful in human tumor imaging,radioisotope scanning for AR activity can complement single cell CTCassays in providing ongoing monitoring for second line hormonal agentsin CRPC. Such individualization of second line treatments in metastaticprostate cancer is useful to improve therapeutic success, given theevident tumor cell heterogeneity that accompanies the emergence ofresistance to initial androgen deprivation.

Example 3: Methods and Materials

Patients and Clinical Specimens

Patients with metastatic prostate cancer receiving treatment at theMassachusetts General Hospital (MGH) were recruited according to aninstitutional review board (IRB) approved protocol. A total of 21prostate cancer patients donated 10-20 mL of blood on one or moreoccasions for CTC analysis. A total of 21 male patients with no knowndiagnosis of cancer were recruited during routine visits to the MGHoutpatient internal medicine clinic according to a separate IRB approvedprotocol. CTC capture using the ^(HB)CTC-Chip was performed as described(Stott S L, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107: 18392-7), withanti-EpCAM mediated capture of cells, followed by combined staining withanti-PSA, anti-PSMA, and anti-CD45 antibodies (described in detailbelow).

Cell Lines

LNCaP cells (ATCC) were maintained at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ in RPMI-1640medium supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine (Invitrogen), 10% fetal bovineserum (Invitrogen), and 1% penicillin-streptomycin (Invitrogen). VCaPcells (ATCC) were maintained at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ in DMEM high glucosemedium supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine (Invitrogen), 10% fetal bovineserum (Invitrogen), and 1% penicillin-streptomycin (Invitrogen). Forgeneration and validation of the AR signature, LNCaP or VCaP cells werecultured for 3 days in medium supplemented with 10% charcoal-strippedfetal bovine serum (Invitrogen), and then treated with varyingconcentrations of R1881 (Perkin-Elmer), bicalutamide (Sigma), or DMSO asa vehicle control for varying periods of time. A Shandon Cytospincentrifuge was used to prepare cytospins of cell lines on glass slides.

^(HB)CTC-Chip Device Fabrication Microfluidic

^(HB)CTC-Chip devices were made of PDMS bonded to glass substrates usingsoft lithography techniques, as previously described (Stott S L, et al.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107: 18392-7). The microfluidic deviceswere functionalized with epithelial cell adhesion molecule antibody(EpCAM, R&D Systems) or normal goat IgG irrelevant control antibody (R&DSystems) using avidin-biotin chemistry, using a previously describedmethod (Stott S L, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107: 18392-7).

HBCTC-Chip Blood Processing

All specimens were collected into Vacutainer (Becton-Dickson) tubescontaining the anticoagulant EDTA and were processed through the^(HB)CTC-Chip within 6 hours of blood draw. Samples were run on thepreviously described microfluidic processing machine (Stott S L, et al.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107: 18392-7). Briefly, a 5 mL aliquot ofblood was placed in an airtight conical tube on a rocker assembly, and2˜4 mL of blood were pneumatically driven through the chip at a flowrate of 1-1.5 mL/hour. Following processing, the ^(HB)CTC-Chip wasflushed with 2.5 mL of PBS at 2.5 mL/hour to remove nonspecificallybound cells. Isolated CTCs were then subjected to immunofluorescencestaining, as described below.

Immunofluorescence Staining and Automated Fluorescence Microscopy

To establish and validate the immunofluorescence single cell ARsignature, LNCaP cells were cultured in media containing 10%charcoal-stripped serum for 3 days followed by treatment with 1 nM R1881or 10 μM bicalutamide for 24 hours. Once the assays were validated incultured cells, they were applied to cells spiked into whole blood andisolated on the CTC-Chip, to healthy donor blood samples to establishthe signal intensity threshold for detection, and ultimately on primarypatient samples processed through the Chip. Cells captured on the^(HB)CTC-chip were fixed with 4% formaldehyde and permeabilized with 1%NP-40 in PBS. Immunofluorescence staining was performed using a rabbitpolyclonal anti-PSA antibody (DAKO), a mouse monoclonal IgG1 anti-PSMAantibody (J591; N. Bander), and a mouse monoclonal IgG2a anti-CD45antibody (Abcam), followed by appropriately matched secondary antibodiesconjugated with DyLight 649 (Jackson ImmunoResearch), Alexa Fluor 555(Invitrogen), and Alexa Fluor 488 (Invitrogen). Nuclei were stained withDAPI. An automated upright fluorescence microscopy scanning system(BioView) fitted with a precision motorized stage and xenon arc lamp(Lumen 2000, Prior Scientific) was used to comprehensively image eachCTC-chip under 10× magnification in seven z-planes. Due to inherent autofluorescence of biological samples that can interfere with thespecificity of stains in the green spectra, the negative control marker,CD45, was paired with the Alexa Fluor 488 secondary antibody. Thischoice reduced the sensitivity of the staining assay (potentially morefalse negatives), but lessened the risk of false positives throughnatural autofluorescence. Conversely, PSA, the highest affinity antibodytested (and subsequently strongest fluorescent signal) was placed in theCy5 channel, where the quantum efficiency of traditional monochrome CCDsensors is reduced. To successfully achieve distinct, non-overlappingfluorescent signals in four colors while maximizing the fluorescentintensity output, modified Magnetron sputter-coated filter sets wereselected for the Cy3 and Cy5 spectra (Chroma). Additional filter setsfor the DAPI and FITC channel were used and exposure times wereoptimized. All samples were subsequently imaged at predeterminedexposure times. Potential CTC targets were automatically classifiedusing a previously described algorithm based on predeterminedfluorescence intensity and cell morphology criteria (Stott S L et al.Sci Transl Med 2010; 2: 25ra3), followed by manual validation by ablinded human reviewer. CTC counts were tabulated based on the totalnumber of cells that were positive for PSA and/or PSMA, and negative forCD45. Normalized counts (CTC/mL) were calculated by dividing the totalCTC count by the total volume of blood processed. Based on analysis ofblood from healthy donors, a signal intensity threshold of detection wasdetermined to be 4 CTC/mL, and normalized counts which fell below thisthreshold were considered to be false positive events and were notincluded in the final analysis. High resolution immunofluorescenceimages were obtained using an upright fluorescence microscope (Eclipse90i, Nikon) under 60× magnification.

Quantitative Single Cell Immunofluorescence Analysis

Quantitative fluorescence intensity data for four different emissionspectra (DAPI, FITC, Cy3, and Cy5) were obtained for each single cell,as determined by the “G-Area pixels” (FITC; CD45), “R-Area pixels” (CY5;PSA), and “Gold-Area pixels” (Cy3; PSMA) columns in the Research Mode ofthe Bioview image analysis software (Bioview). Data files were convertedto CSV format using Microsoft Excel, and then to flow cytometry FCSformat using TextToFCS version 1.2.1. The converted data were thenanalyzed using FlowJo software version 7.6. Displayed pseudocolordensity plots were gated to only display events that are CD45 negative.Bar graphs were generated using Microsoft Excel, and reflect theproportions of PSA+/PSMA−/CD45−, PSA+/PSMA+/CD45−, and PSA−/PSMA+/CD45−CTCs tabulated after manual validation. Any sample with a normalized CTCcount of <4 CTC/mL was considered to have a CTC count below the limit ofreliable detection, based on background staining threshold previouslydetermined from experiments processing healthy donor normal blood withthe ^(HB)CTC-Chip. In cases where normalized CTC counts were below thelimit of reliable detection, percentage distributions of AR signalingphenotypes were not calculated, and “NA” was listed in SupplementalTable 51 under the corresponding columns.

Statistical Analysis

AR activity and the proportion of CTC phenotypes between samples werecompared using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Two-sided P-values<0.05 wereconsidered statistically significant. Treatment time was measured fromthe date of the start of therapy to the date of treatmentdiscontinuation or last follow-up. Survival curves were generated usingthe Kaplan-Meier method and compared using the log-rank test. Allstatistical analyses were performed using R, version 2.12.0.

Example 4: Single Cell RNA Expression in CTCs

Global CTC expression analyses may identify major pathways involved inmetastasis (20), but the inherent heterogeneity of CTCs necessitates theidentification of expression patterns and signaling pathways withinindividual cells. We therefore applied single cell micromanipulationapproaches to interrogate individual CTCs isolated from a patient withprostate cancer using the ^(neg)CTC-iChip. Although micromanipulationapproaches require expertise and are time-consuming, unaltered CTCsisolated rapidly with ^(neg)CTC-iChip present high RNA quality and arein ideal condition to undergo accurate RNA-based expression profiling.We distinguished CTCs from contaminating leukocytes within the^(neg)CTC-iChip product by immunostaining using anti-EpCAM versusanti-CD45 antibodies (FIGS. 9A-9B). CTCs identified as EpCAM+/CD45− wereindividually isolated and subjected to RNA analysis by multi-genemicrofluidic qRT-PCR, profiling for a panel of transcripts implicated inandrogen receptor (AR) signaling, cellular proliferation, stem cell,epithelial and mesenchymal cell fates, and leukocyte-specific lineage(data not shown). Single cells from a human prostate cancer cell line(LNCaP) were used to optimize assay conditions (data not shown).

A striking heterogeneity was apparent among 15 CTCs isolated from asingle patient with metastatic CRPC who had progressed through multiplelines of therapy, including androgen deprivation therapy withleuprolide, the chemotherapeutic drug docetaxel, and the second lineandrogen biosynthesis inhibitor abiraterone acetate. Consistent withEpCAM-positive immunostaining, most CTCs (13/15 analyzed, 87%) werepositive for epithelial gene expression, of which 2 CTCs (13%) were dualpositive for epithelial as well as mesenchymal markers (vimentin andN-cadherin) (FIG. 9C). Thus, a subset of CTCs appears to have undergonea partial EMT. CTC heterogeneity was also evident with expression ofstem cell markers [Nanog, Oct-4 (POU5F1), c-Myc] in 10 CTCs (67%), whichoverlapped primarily with epithelial markers within individual CTCs(data not shown). Proliferation markers Cyclin B, Cyclin D, Aurora Akinase, and MYBL2 were detected in another subset of 7 CTCs (47%).

AR activity, previously defined in CTCs as the ratio of androgen-drivenprostate specific antigen (PSA) to androgen-repressed prostate specificmembrane antigen (PSMA) expression (21), was heterogeneous among CTCs.The “AR on” phenotype (PSA expression only) was only seen in 2/15 CTCs(13%), whereas the “AR-off” state (PSMA only) was evident in 2 CTCs(13%), and a “mixed AR” state (PSA+/PSMA+) in 10 CTCs (67%) (FIG. 9C).This distribution is concordant with single-cell immunofluorescenceanalysis of AR signaling status in CTCs from patients with CRPC (21).

Methods: Single-Cell Micromanipulation and Fluidigm qRT-PCR.

Blood samples from a patient with metastatic prostate cancer wereprocessed through the ^(neg)CTC-iChip, and unfixed CTCs andcontaminating leukocytes were stained in solution with fluorophoreconjugated antibodies against EpCAM and CD45. Single CTCs wereidentified based on an EpCAM+/CD45− phenotype, transferred under directmicroscopic visualization to individual PCR tubes using a TRANSFERMANNK2™ micromanipulator (Eppendorf A G). Single cell cDNA was prepared andamplified for single cell transcriptome analysis, followed by specifictarget preamplification (Fluidigm Corporation). Microfluidic qRT-PCR wasperformed using the BioMark Real-Time PCR system (Fluidigm Corporation).The normalized gene expression in each cell (−ΔC_(t)) was calculated asthe negative of the difference between the C_(t) value for each gene andthe GAPDH C_(t) value for the cell. Heatmaps of normalized geneexpression (−ΔC_(t)) were generated using the HeatMapImage module ofGENEPATTERN™, with global color normalization.

REFERENCES

-   20. M. Yu, A. Bardia, B. Wittner, S. Stott, M. Smas, D. Ting, S.    Isakoff, J. Ciciliano, M. Wells, A. Shah, K. Concannon, M.    Donaldson, L. Sequist, E. Brachtel, D. Sgroi, J. Baselga, S.    Ramaswamy, M. Toner, D. Haber, and S. Maheswaran, “Circulating    breast tumor cells exhibit dynamic changes in epithelial and    mesenchymal composition.,” Science, 339, 580-584 (2013).-   21. D. T. Miyamoto, R. J. Lee, S. L. Stott, D. T. Ting, B. S.    Wittner, M. Ulman, M. E. Smas, J. B. Lord, B. W. Brannigan, J.    Trautwein, N. H. Bander, C. L. Wu, L. V. Sequist, M. R. Smith, S.    Ramaswamy, M. Toner, S. Maheswaran, and D. A. Haber, “Androgen    Receptor Signaling in Circulating Tumor Cells as a Marker of    Hormonally Responsive Prostate Cancer,” Cancer Discovery, 2,    995-1003 (2012).

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for treating prostate cancer in apatient, wherein said patient is currently being treated with first lineandrogen deprivation therapy (ADT), said method comprising: (a)isolating circulating prostate tumor cells from said patient over aperiod of time during which said patient is being treated with saidfirst line ADT; (b) measuring the levels of expression of PSA and PSMAon the surfaces of single isolated circulating prostate tumor cells; (c)determining if the ratio of the levels of expression of PSA to PSMA onisolated single circulating prostate tumor cells remains the same orincreases over said period of time, wherein if said ratio remains thesame or increases over said period of time there is an indication thatcastration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is emerging in said patient;and (d) if said ratio remains the same or increases over said period oftime, then discontinuing treatment with said first line ADT andinitiating treatment with a second line therapy effective to treatemerging CRPC; or (e) if said ratio decreases over said period of time,then continuing treatment with said first line ADT.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said first line ADT comprises administering to thepatient leuprolide.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said second linetherapy comprises administering to the patient a therapeuticallyeffective amount of abiraterone acetate.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein said second line therapy comprises administering to the patienta therapeutically effective amount of an anti-cancer agent that has notbeen previously used to treat said prostate cancer in said patient. 5.The method of claim 1, further comprising treating emerging CRPC with atherapeutically effective amount of one or more additionalchemotherapeutic agents.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein said one ormore additional chemotherapeutic agents is selected from the groupconsisting of paclitaxel, docetaxel, and cabazitaxel.
 7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said period of time ranges from 2 weeks to 20 years. 8.The method of claim 1, wherein the steps (a)-(d) are repeated over saidperiod of time every week, month, or year.